Baksheesh

[Info from:  wikipedia entries] BAKSHEESH Baksheesh or bagsheesh (from Persian: bakhshesh) -- tipping, charitable giving -- certain forms of political corruption and bribery -- practised in the Middle East and South Asia -- derived from Middle Iranian Pahlavi -- goes back to Sanskrit: 'bhiksha' or 'bheeks' (same meaning) Middle Persian = Pahlavi script (incl. Zoroastrian Middle Persian of 9th-11th C.) 'Middle Persian' = 'Middle Iranian' language of south-western Persia / Iran Sassanid period:  224 - 654 AD Western Iranian language classification -- descends from Old Persian -- linguistic ancestor of Modern Persian -- was  prestige dialect spoken in other regions of empire -- Middle Persian = several dialects & variants -- one of which was:  Pahlavīk (Pahlavi) -- for Parthian -- language of Arsacid Dynasty -- Pārsik = official language of the Sasanian Dynasty -- Parsik = another Middle Persian variant -- when referring to 'Middle Perssian' -- it is this latter variant (Parsik) that is referred to Parsik -- native name for Middle Persian -- means 'language of Pars' Pars = Persia -- aka 'Fars'  = Fârs is the Arabized version of Pârs / Arabic has no 'p' -- Fars Province is one of 31 provinces of Iran -- ie Pars?  Province:  is cultural capital of Iran -- it is in south of Iran -- admin. centre = Shiraz -- Fars Province is original homeland of Persian people -- Persians present in region from abt. 10th Century BC -- became rulers of largest empire at that time -- ie Achaemenid empire (est. mid 6th C. BC) -- ruins of Persepolis & Pasargadae = x2 of x4 capitals -- of Achaemenid empire -- Persepolis & Pasargadae - are located in Pars Province -- 333 BC - Achaemenid empire defeated by Alexander the Great -- Seleucid empire then overtook, but never extended power beyond trade routes in Pars -- Seleucid Empire = Hellenistic state ruled by Seleucid dynasty -- Seleucus received Babylonia empire -- Seleucus expanded to incl:  pt. Anatolia, Persia, Levant, Mesopotamia     * now Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan & Kuwait -- Seleucid Empire = major centre of Hellenistic culture -- maintained Greek customs at fore / Greek political elite dominated -- mostly in urban areas - immigration from Greece enforces Greek dominant elite in cities -- decisive defeat by Roman Army ends Seleucid expansion into Anatolia & Greece -- blocked by Roman demands re Egypt as well -- + more, not time to view Seleucus I Nicator -- rival general of Alexander the Great -- one of Diadochi (successors) of Alexander the Great -- son of Antiochus -- Antiochus - Macedonian, orig. from Orestis, Macedonia -- Seleucus as king, founded x16 cities named honour of father, Antiochus -- incl. Syrian city of Antioch (now in Turkey) Orestis -- region of Upper Macedonia -- corresponds roughly to region now in western Maedonia in Greece -- inhabitants are:  Orestae, ancient Greek tribe part of Molossian tribal state -- Molossian tribal state, known as:  koinon -- term 'Orestis' derived from 'mountains' -- part of Macedon after early 4th C. BC -- prior to that associated with Epirus -- Epirus rugged mountain region b/w Greece & Albania -- home to ancient Greek tribes x3 -- home to sanctuary of Dodona     =  oldest ancient Greek oracle, & most prestigious one after Delphi -- Epirus - in reign of Pyrrhus of Epirus campaigns -- versust Rome are the origin of the term "Pyrrhic victory" -- 146 BC - Epirus (therefore Orestis region) -- became part of ROMAN EMPIRE with rest of Greece -- Byzantine Empire then ensues, following fall of Constantinople to Fourth Crusade -- Byzantine empire than conquered by Ottoman turks in 1400s -- semi-independent Epirus under Ottomans to 1821 assertion of Ottoman control -- Balkan Wars & WWI ensued -- Epirus becomes part of Greece -- northern portion Epirus designated NEWLY CREATED STATE OF ALBANIA Parthia -- historical region of north-eastern Iran -- Parthians were an Iranian people -- cultural base of Arsacid dynasty -- rulers Parthian Empire: 247BC - 224 AD) -- were subjects of: -- Medes -- Achaemenids -- Assyrians (Cyrus the Great defeats Medians) -- Darius I features also: Achaemenid throne sized by Darius I -- Parthians + Median king revolt c. 522–521 BC suppressed -- 331 BC Darius III vs. Alexander the Great -- Darius III defeat -- on death Alexander the Great = Partition of Babylon 323 BC -- Parthia = Seleucids governate under Nicanor Partition of Babylon -- distribution of territories under Alexander the Great -- following death Alexander the Great 323 BC -- Satrapies (provinces ancient Persia): -- Babylon -- Triparadisus -- Persepolis *it was not a 'political partition' -- before Alexander death Macedonian mutiny among troops since prior -- expedition to India -- Alexander formed special unit of Persians, the Epigoni -- Epigoni Persian guard armed & trained in Macedonian ways -- hired as exclusive bodyguards on Alexander return from India -- senior staff holders Macedonian generals (with official title bodyguards) -- Alexander covered with old wounds from head to foot & seriously ill prior death -- 'Pahlavi' term derived from Parthian lang. -- word 'arthav' or 'parthau' meaning Parthia -- Parthia region east of Caspian sea Pahlavi an admixture of -- written Imperial Aramaic -- Aramaic derived script, logograms, and some of vocabulary Logograms -- written character that respresents a word or phrase eg. - Chinese characters - Japanese kanji - Egyptian hieroglyphs (some) - some 'graphemes' in Cuneiform script -- use of logograms known as 'logography' Alphabets -- differs to: alphabets & syllabaries -- in which: -- individual written characters represent sounds rather than concepts -- known as: phonograms (vs. logograms, described above) Word 'baksheesh': -- absorbed by following languages: -- German - bakschisch (small bribe) -- French - bakschisch (small bribe) -- Russian - actual russian for gift is: podarok / подарок - prob. from дар / dar / gift - 'bakshish' not listed in my search - therefore possibly informally adopted some regions? -- Greek - baksisi - gift (in general) -- Serbian - Standard Serbian: based on Shtokavian dialect - South Slavic subgroup of Slavic language - in South Slavic group: Croation, Montenegrin & Bosnian -- Bosnian - standardised variety of Serbo-Croatian - however, incorporates loan words from: - Arabic - Ottoman Turkish - Persian - via cultural influence (Islamic ties) - ie. 'orientalisms' - otherwise, it is Serbo-Croatian -- Macedonian - eastern group of South Slavic branch of Slavic languages     - along with Bulgarian & extinct Old Church Slavonic     - closest to: Bulgarian / high degree intelligibility     - next closest: Serbo-Croatian -- Romanian - romana - lang. of Romania & spoken Moldova - Daco-Romanian - Soviet times, referred to as Moldovan in Moldova - since 2013 Moldova court rules it 'Romanian' language - bakschisch (small bribe euphamism re şpagă (outright bribe)) - closest relatives: Vlachs (Gk. term) for all Latin descendants Balkans etc, incl. Romanians -- ie general term for descendants of Latinised Balkans & Central-East Europe - Aromanian - Latin, Greece, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria - from vulgar Latin spoken by the Paleo-Balkan peoples - prior to Romanisation: - domination by: - Roman Republic - Roman Empire - ancient Roman historians referred to this as: "civilising of barbarians" - Megleno-Romanian (Vlăhește) - Romance language: sim. Aromanian & Romanian - dialect of Romanian - spoken Moglena, spans Greek Macedonia & Rep. Macedonia - spoken by small Muslim group Turkey - moved as part of population exchange from Greece 1920s - Istro-Romanian - aka Ćiribirci, Ćići, Vlahi - ethnic group Istria & other (Croatia) - total just over 100 speakers - endangered lang. - first historical record of Romanians in Istrian region - distinction re Romanian = not Orthodox, Roman Catholic - lang. mention dates to: 940 AD - Roman Emperor Constantine VII recorded Latin speakers - calling themselves 'Romans' but not from Rome - mention in 1329 Serbian chronicals re that region - in ref. to Vlach pop. - thought to have migrated from: Transylvania 600 years prior - after Black Death depopulated Istria - Istro-Romanians lived for time Dalmatia - brief Italian fascist rule - post WWII migrations / assimilation under Yugoslav admin. -- Bulgarian - first Slavic language attested in writing - Slavic linguistic unity lasted to late antiquity LATE ANTIQUITY From: Late antiquity from: -- reorganisation of late Roman Empire -- by: Diocletian (reigned: 284-305 -- b. Dalmatia province -- ranks through military -- under Roman Emperor Carsus -- death Carsus & son campaign in Persia -- Diocletian proclaimed emperor (contested - Battle of the Margus) -- stabilised empire -- marking end 'Crisis of the Third Century' -- 286 AD: appoints officer Maximilian as Augustus (co-emperor) -- 293 AD: rule of four (tetrarchy) by additional appointment: -- Galerius -- Constantius -- as ceasars: junior co emperors -- each ruled quarter of empire -- separated enlarged Roman empire civil & military services -- rearranged provincial divisions -- established largest & most bureaucratic govt in history of Roman empire -- admin centres: -- Nicomedia -- Mediolanum -- Antioch -- Trier -- autocrat / follow-on from 'absolutism' of 3rd Century AD trends -- helped stabilize the empire economically & militarily -- enabled Roman empire to remain essentially intact anor. 100 years -- despite brink of collapse of Roman empire in Diocletian's youth -- 305: first Roman emperor to abdicate (voluntarily) -- retired to palace on the Dalmatian coast -- modern day city of Split (Croatia) - core = Diocletian palace To:   -- Early Middle Ages (aka Early Medieval) -- Early Medieval = 5th C. to 10th C. AD -- Early Middle Ages followed decline of Western Roman Empire - dramatic changes follow: influence of neighbours, incl. Turks -- Albanian - known as: shqip language - first written mention 1285, Dubrovnik (Croatia) - referred to by witness of crime, in Latin script: " ... lingua albanesca" (... Albanian tongue) - note: 500 years of Ottoman domination of Albania - Albanian in Indo-Euro branch of own (as is Armenian & Greek) - vocab. distinct - proven distinct from earlier groupings (ie Germanic & Balto-Slavic) - evolved from an ancient Paleo-Balkan language, either: - Illyrian or (Dracian or) Thracian - linguists are still arguing this one - earliest loan words from Doric Greek - strongest influence from Latin (2nd C. BC to 5th C. AD) - followed by Slavic & German invasions Word 'baksheesh' - also: -- Turkish - bakshish - tip (in conventional Western sense) -- Arabic Sanskrit -- saṃskṛtā -- sacred language of Hinduism -- philosophical language:  Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism -- literary language & lingua franca Greater India -- lingua franca / common language / trade language / bridge language -- communication means b/w those who do not share native language -- esp. communication in third, distinct language -- standardised dialect of Old Indo-Aryan -- ie.  Vedic Sanskrit -- ancestry to:     -- Proto-Indo-Iranian     -- Proto-Indo-European -- one of the oldest Indo-European languages -- for which *written* docs exist -- Sanskrit:  prominent position in Indo-European studies -- body of literature:  poetry & drama, scientific, tech, philosophical & religious texts -- ceremonial language Hindu religious riguals -- Buddhist hymns & chants = Sanskrit -- evolved out of the earlier Vedic form -- present form Vedic Sanskrit traced back to 2000 BC -- separate to Pāṇinian dialect -- Vedic Sanskrit = lang. of Vedas -- Vedas -- large body texts of ancient India -- in Vedic Sanskrit - oldest scriptures of Hinduism -- Vedas aka  śruti literature  ('what is heard') -- disgingusihed from  smṛti  (other religious texts) -- smṛti ('what is remembered') -- smṛti - body Hindu texts (constantly revised) -- incls. epics & other it is a bit like:  смерть  /  smert /  death ... or maybe not?  sounds similar to me sound of death [Info from:  wikipedia entries] ---------------------- ---------------------- COMMENT Really enjoyed going off on a tangent checking out the trail from 'baksheesh' to Hindu texts and Slavic 'death'. Trouble remembering 'Parthian' -- for some reason, that term reminds me of Indian.  But it's not Indian; it's Persian (Iranian). No time to look more ... must rush to clean up some, or I'll be in the 'doghouse'. *No time to double-check spelling ...  Having trouble with spell-check:  for some reason, not picking up the occasional typos like it normally does.

Caesar - Greatness Is Fleeting & Death is Eternal

Caesar Greatness Is Fleeting & Death is Eternal Gaius Julius Caesar b. July 100 BC d. March 15, 44 BC Roman dictator role in demise of Roman Republic & rise of Roman Empire [wikipedia] Documentary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dxff0fCe9TM Gaius Julius Caesar b. 102 BC - 100 BC d. March 15, 44 BC parents: Aurelia Gaius Julius Caesar, a praetor (army commander or magistrate) -- noble, patrician roots -- not rich or influential in this period -- aunt: Julia - married to Gaius Marius (leader of Popular faction) Sources of info available re Caesar: Roman historians: Suetonius & Plutarch (abt 100 years after Caesar death) Caesar memoir: 'Caesar:  The Gallic War' Character Ruthless, supremely ambitious Upbringing Brought up Rome -- in seedy brothel-lined alleyways of Subura -- well aware of glorious past of family / decides to climb social & political ladder to where he believes he should be -- Roman army the place to start Roman Army -- hero consul Sulla - power at the point of a spear / uses military might to seize control of Rome in civil war -- joins army age 20 / distinguishes self for battlefield bravery in Greece Homosexuality -- Caesar said to have had sexual relationship with King of Bithynia [Nicomedes IV] (northern Turkey) on what is business / diplomatic trip -- Caesar in Turkey to negotiate with king Nicomedes for warships to aid Roman cause -- gossips call Caesar the 'Queen of Bithynia' -- in that era, the issue wasn't male-to-male sex; it was taking the submissive position - role seen as too much like woman -- Caesar response:  seduction of all women in sight -- Caesar uses gossip to his advantage:  social climbing factor (ie King of Nicomedes, of Bithynia) -- vigorous & frequent sexual exploits both men & women inspire poets -- scribe Catullus:  suggests in verse Caesar has come down with something bad -- but this is unlikely  - various diseases ruled out: -- syphilis transmitted later from America w. conquistadores - eliminated -- herpes - would have left physical marks / would have mentioned - eliminated -- gonorrhoea - would have left physical marks / would have mentioned - eliminated -- chlamydia - possible (but no male symptoms) Politics / Law -- Caesar moves from army into politics & law - in 20s -- powerful & persuasive speaker; court cases draw large crowds Pirates [comment:  following is probably derived from Caesar's own boastful account] -- trip to Greece / captured by Greek pirates -- pirates major problem, infested Mediterranean -- pirates demand a large ransom:  20 silver talents (abt $130,000) - a lifetime's wages for Roman soldier -- Caesar laughs at pirates & says he's worth way more:  50 silver talents -- move shrewd:  increases his chances of remaining alive & of maintaining control of situation -- demonstrates that he can remain cool in face of danger -- turns into guest from hell:  demands quiet, orders pirates around, recites own poetry, berates them for not appreciating it -- pirates sick of him; will kill him if they don't get ransom -- Caesar issues threat of his own:  if they release him, he'll return & kill them -- promises he'll come back & crucify them all -- ransom eventually paid; Caesar released Crucified Pirates -- Caesar raises small naval force & makes good his threat -- crucifies the pirates:  painful & lingering death  |  however, he orders their throats cut first -- was the talk of Rome -- doco commentary:  story has ring of truth to it, as what is known of Caesar's later life indicates he was in control Women -- Julius Caesar, pirate slayer, attracts women:  said to have slept with almost all the wives of Rome's aristocrats -- has a series of wives:  4 -- Caesar uses sex with women to dominate women &, by extension, to show dominance over their husbands Ambition -- over the years, aims for top job:  consul, head of govt of Republic of Rome -- just as today's political campaigns are costly, Caesar accumulates debt which could kill his career -- on look-out for allies & money -- suggests an alliance with wealthy Crassus & military hero, Pompey the Great - they agree First Triumvirate - 3 Conspirators - here -- it doesn't matter that he's had affairs with both their wives -- forget the titles, this is equivalent of the city of Rome being divided up by three powerful 'mafia bosses' -- it's about patronage & power:  it's about deciding who gets the large contracts. Gaul Caesar's share of the spoils = Roman Gaul (northern Italy & parts modern France) -- Caesar becomes governor & that gives him absolute power -- but he has a problem, he has a debt -- decides to go to war / in Roman times it is good business -- money to be made in pillaged treasure & slaves -- target:  unconquered parts of Gaul -- main concern was how much profit to be made -- Rome was essentially a system of:  robbery with violence -- 'I came, I saw, I conquered' - battle-line dispatch from Caesar -- battle progress reported in Rome & Caesar is his own reporter via dispatches -- obsessive attention to detail:  crucial element of personality - psychologically needs to be in control of his image -- not leaving it to other people; Caesar the one to decide who Julius Caesar is -- described as master of self promotion & propaganda Bibracte -- Bibracte - scene of bloody battle with Gallic Helvetii tribe (occupied modern Switzerland) -- Bibracte 2,500 ft elevation / highest place for 150 miles - completely dominates landscape -- crucial for Gauls to hold Bibracte / equally crucial for Caesar to take it -- major clash - ruthless:     -- skulls pitted with sword marks     --  Caesar:  Helvetii bravest of all Gallic tribes     -- incendiary bomb unearthed from abt 1,000 years ago     -- a head of arrow shot from Roman catapult / wire cage to contain sticky substance on fire     -- designed to set Gallic settlement on fire     -- example of high-tech weaponry Gauls up against defending against Caesar     -- Caesar armed his legions with the pilum, a javlin-like weapon     -- spears tearing through shields & skewering Gallic warriors     -- pilum = uniquely Roman weapon, specifically designed for army     -- designed to kill / to be thrown at very short distances     -- Gauls never stood chance against pilum     -- shields penetrated to 6" depth, rendering shields useless = exposure to swordsmen     -- Gauls have numbers in their favour -- Caesar on a mission to make himself a hero in Rome -- Caesar sacks & pillages Gallic towns & villages one by one, adding to his wealth Avaricum -- 150 miles south of modern Paris -- Gallic defenders behind fortified walls -- Caesar lays siege to town for 25 days -- when he storms the walls, he overruns weakened defenders -- Caesar's legions slaughter 39,000 men, women & children -- 800 left alive to carry message to other Gauls:  resistance is futile -- Caesar's standing order:  after victory, soldiers to be turned loose to do as they please -- Caesar brags that his men do just as well stinking of perfume -- sex with captives & prostitutes who follow the Roman army = Roman custom -- climax of war with Gaul, Caesar reveals extent of cruelty on battleground 125 miles east of Avaricum Siege of Alesia Siege of Alesia - September, 52 BC -- hill fort, Alesia -- battle site was probably atop Mont Auxois -- Caesar faces army of 80,000 led by Gual's most successful commander, Vercingetorix* *account refers to 'beheaded' but 'strangled' more frequently stated elsewhere Roman Commanders -- cavalry commanders Mark Antony, Titus Labienus + Gaius Trebonius aid Caesar -- against a confederation of Gallic tribes -  under leadership of Vercingetorix of the Arverni -- last major engagement between Gauls and Romans - marking turning point Gallic Wars in favour of Rome -- marking end of Celtic dominance in France, Belgium, Switzerland + Northern Italy Siege -- Vercingetorix retreated with his 80,000 men to immensely strong natural fortification, with sheer cliff faces -- unable to storm fortification, Caesar builds wall around outside, 10 miles long -- 18 kilometres of 4 metre high fortifications - constructed in abt. 3 weeks -- this line was followed inwards by two 4.5 metre wide ditches, also 4.5 metres deep -- one nearest to the fortification was filled with water from the surrounding rivers -- supplemented by mantraps & deep holes in front of ditches & regularly spaced watchtowers, equipped with Roman artillery -- known as:  circumvallation -- to pen in Gauls until starved into submission -- Vercingetorix had inflicted heavy casualties on Caesar's army -- Gallic riders break through fortification / reinforcements inevitable -- Caesar responds with another barricade around own men, finished just in time (a contravallation) -- contravallation extended for 21km -- 250,000 Gallic reinforcements turn up Caesar Refuses Passage to 20,000 Non-Combatants - Watches Them Starve -- over the weeks that pass, penned in Gauls in fort starve -- desperate, Vercingetorix lets 20,000 women & children leave fort, believing Caesar will let them pass -- old people, women & children, useless mouths in terms of war - denied escape by Caesar -- die of starvation - collateral damage / Caesar does not count the numbers -- Gauls watch helplessly as wives and children slowly die Ends Justify the Means -- Are these the actions of psychopath or does this make good strategic sense? -- David Mallott, Analytical Psychiatrist, University of Maryland:     -- tremendously ruthless act; however, Caesar has calculated that ends justify the means. -- Siege of Alesia ends with final pitched battle -- Vercingetorix & 60,000 Gauls break out of fort & storm weak point in Roman lines -- battle lasts all day - Gauls mentally & physically exhausted -- Caesar leads last reserve in person wearing a scarlet cloak so he can be recognised -- Gallic army falls apart & battle is over -- retreating Gauls were slaughtered -- Caesar writes that not a Gaul would have been left alive had his men not been so exhausted from battle Battle at Alesia is the last real organised resistance by the Gallic armies -- Vercingetorix - taken to Rome & held at Tullianum, located in the Comitium in ancient Rome     Tullianum = Mamertine Prison DETOUR:    Others imprisoned at Tullianum:          Saul of Tarsus - Jewish founder of Christianity     -- of 27 books in New Testament, 14 attributed to Paul (ie Saul)     -- later prisoner at Tullianum (Mamertine Prison)         -- conflict with Asian Jews (Roman Asia = Phrygia / pt. Anatolia (now Turkey)         -- led to 2 years imprisonment for Saul              Simon bar Giora, Jewish revolutionary leader     -- captured in Judea     -- brought to Rome to be displayed during the triumphal procession     -- executed in 70 AD     -- leader of a rebel faction during the First Jewish-Roman War in 1st-century Judea     -- helped in defence against Roman advance to Jerusalem 66 AD     -- assault on hindmost Roman troops / put into disarray     -- led many animals carrying weapons of war into Jerusalem     -- rejected by Jerusalem authorities     -- bar Giora = popular leader of rebellious peasantry     -- Jerusalem leaders wanted means of moderating revolt & negotiating with Romans     -- bar Giora then gathered large numbers of revolutionaries & robbed the wealthy in Acrabbene     -- safe retreat = Masada     -- after Ananus ben Ananus killed in Zealot Temple Siege, bar Giora went to the hills         Ananus ben Ananus (ie Hebrew:  Hanan ben Hanan)         -- Jewish priest         -- former Herodian-era High High Priest of Israel         -- allegedly ordered the execution by stoning of James the Just         -- James the brother of Jesus (ie Yehoshua) - brothers:   James, Jude, Simon & Joses         -- popular opinion turned against him over stoning of James & he was replaced by Roman governor         -- Ananus ben Ananus incited the people to rise up against the Zealots                  Zealots         -- religous/political movement - 1st century         -- to incite Judaea Province to rebel against Roman Empire         -- reportedly robbing the people and using the Temple of Jerusalem as base of operations                  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealot_Temple_Siege                  Saint Peter         -- ie Shim'on Bar Yona         -- founded the church in Rome with Paul         -- served as its bishop, authored two epistles         -- Peter crucified Rome / Emperor Nero Augustus Caesar         https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Peter                  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamertine_Prison Vercingetorix  held captive 5 years Tullianum in Rome -- Vercingetorix paraded through Rome streets in chains in triumph -- at climax of parade, Vercingetorix is strangled Gaul Campaign  | Systemic Use of Terror -- Gaul campaign came at an enormous cost in human suffering - almost 20% of the entire population of Gual killed -- equivalent of 50 million US citizens today -- takes Caesar 9 years to subjugate the Gauls -- garrison of Alesia was taken prisoner as well as the survivors of the relief army -- they were either sold into slavery or given as booty to Caesar's legionaries (ie as slaves to legionaries) -- members of Aedui + Arverni tribes, released to secure alliance to Rome -- Caesar wants to make sure they know defeat   2,000 captured rebel hold-outs to carry the message -- Caesar orders that both hands of every man should be cut off -- mutilated men were then sent back to their villages to act as a warning -- systemic use of terror as a means of intimidating targets into not fighting back against the Romans Roman Civil War -- Alesia = major military & political success for Caesar -- senate declared 20 days of thanksgiving for this victory -- but refused Caesar the honour of celebrating a triumphal parade -- 2 years later, 50 BC - Caesar crossed Rubicon (Caesar age 50) -- Roman Civil War 49-95 BC -- each of the years of the civil war, Caesar elected consul -- appointed to several temporary dictatorships -- finally made 'dictator perpetuus' (dictator for life) 44 BC by Roman senate -- increasing personal power = end of Roman Republic & beginning of Roman Empire Caesar's Commanders -- Labinus sided with Optimates, conservative aristocratic faction in civil war -- Labinus killed - Battle of Munda 45 BC -- Trebonius, a most trusted lieutenant - appointed consul by Caesar 45 BC -- Trebonius later involved in Caesar assassination (Ides of March, March 15, 44 BC) -- Trebonius murdered a year later -- Antony, faithful Caesar supporter -- Antony appointed second in command as Master of the Horse - in charge of Italy during civil war -- Antony elected as Caesar's consular colleague 44 BC -- after Caesar assassination, Antony pursued assassins & vied for supreme power with Octavian -- first formed alliance w. Octvian & Marcus Aemilius Lepidus -- Antony then defeated in Battle of Actium 31 BC -- Antony committed suicide Egypt w. Cleopatra 30 BC -- Octavian later became Caesar Augustus First Triumvirate - 3 Conspirators - here -- Caesar made fortune conquering Gaul -- debt free, sets sights on his real goal:  Rome -- alliance has broken down:     -- wealthy Crassus is dead;     -- warrior Pompey, now in charge, is having second thoughts re Caesar -- political opponents accuse Caesar of war crimes -- if Caesar sets foot in Rome, will be persecuted -- Caesar having blackouts & seizures -- 49 BC River Rubicon - border to Italy -- as Governor of Gual, Caesar cannot be prosecuted -- as soon as Caesar crosses Rubicon, he loses immunity -- his only protection is to take his army with him -- but doing so would be declaration of war -- knows if he crosses river, he's launching a military coup -- big decision -- Caesar response:  Let's roll the dice Iacta alea est  |  Cast dice it is ie.  "Caesar chose to rebel, quoting his favorite poet Menander, "the die is cast" (alea iacta est)" [livius] -- Caesar knows the odds are in his favour -- psychologically, crossing the Rubicon means he's thrown out the rule book completely -- whole new ballgame; Caesar in charge -- former ally Pompey is all that stands between Caesar and absolute power -- in that era, where life expectancy low, 50 years was old -- narrator suggests Caesar knew he was living on borrowed time -- Caesar decides to force events -- Caesar chases Pompey & his army around southern Europe -- following 4 years civil war, Caesar defeats Pompey -- Caesar becomes absolute leader of Roman empire -- other victories:  sexual conquest - queen of Egypt, Cleopatra (22 years) -- beds wife of king of Mauritania - later 2 provinces:  Morocco & Algiers -- Richard McLachlan, MD (University of Western Ontario):     -- Caesar's fits likely caused by worm caught on conquest in Egypt     -- 1 year before first seizure, Caesar had spent considerable time in north Africa (Egypt, specifically)     -- Cysticercosis endemic in Egypt at that time - evidence seen in mummies Cysticercosis tissue infection caused by the young form of the pork tapeworm usually acquired by eating food or drinking water that has tapeworm eggs uncooked vegetables are the major source eggs enter the intestine / develop into larvae larvae enter bloodstream and invade host tissues pork tapeworm is particularly common in Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America some areas believed to 25% of affected 2010 - caused about 1,200 deaths uncommon in developed countries earliest reference to tapeworms = works of ancient Egyptians abt 2000 BC infection of pork with tapeworm was known to ancient Greeks (384-322 BC, Aristotle 'History of Animals') also known to Jewish physicians (& later Muslim physicians) proposed as one of the reasons pork is forbidden [wikipedia] -- effectively, worms have invaded his organs (incl. brain), caused cysts & seizures Consolidation of Power -- Caesar moves to consolidate power - calls himself dictator for life -- Roman public does not want king -- waters tested w. Mark Antony crown to Caesar & refusal -- Caesar opts to behave as a king, without the title -- decision will cost him his life -- Caesar 56 years old / orders that his statues be placed beside those of old kings of Rome -- orders new calendar, including a month named after himself (July) -- orders coin minted bearing his laurel-leaf crowned image -- first time in Roman history a living person was depicted on a coin -- very close to declaring he is like a king -- for 400 years, Romans have not wanted kings - hence the Republic -- Caesar takes no notice -- discontented body of senators since Caesar had pushed through reforms until 44 BC -- senators among them:     -- Cassius (Caesar's rival) - Caesar slept with his wife     -- Marcus Junius Brutas the younger (someone Caesar considers a friend) - Caesar slept with his mother -- sexual exploits to come back to haunt Caesar -- goodwill Caesar had with senators is long gone -- Ides of March - March 15, 44 BC - Caesar stabbed 23 times -- Caesar described as a goal-driven killer + high on sexual dominance scale -- most similar to Genghis Khan -- people did not believe Caesar a tyrant -- to honour him, built a funeral pyre & burnt his body -- then turned on conspirators who killed their conquering hero -- statue of Caesar is put in Pantheon, building dedicated to gods of Rome -- in death, Caesar is made a god -- first person to receive that honour since Romulus, founder of Rome, 700 years before -------------- Documentary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dxff0fCe9TM https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia More http://www.livius.org/caa-can/caesar/caesar03.html http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caesar.html Info from documentary: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dxff0fCe9TM Otherwise, supplemented with info from look-ups in Wikipedia or sources, as marked. ---------------------- ---------------------- COMMENT The psychiatrist in this documentary makes it sound like it's 'not' psychopathy if it's goal directed psychopathy, where the ends justify the means and the individual is in a position of power.  Or that's how it comes across to me.   Will need to come back to this to follow up on the linked materials that I've only skimmed over so far. The brain-eating tape worm sounds absolutely revolting.  Another good reason for quarantine, but negligent governments don't care about that -- they're from a class that's buffered from the consequences of their decisions.  Making war meant profit in Roman times, just as it is today.  Only it was more straightforward and less costly to domestic populations in Roman times, where sale of the defeated into slavery and mass killing of the conquered appears standard.  I like the busts of Caesar, but I'm not sure I like Caesar.  Ruthless, power hungry, sexually exploitative / hedonistic sounding, manipulative propagandist, mass murder.  On the other hand, his military record seems impressive (so far, I think) and he seems fearless (so he probably was a psychopath).  But brain worms and screwing anything that moves aren't so appealing, despite the military prowess.  So maybe he's not all that impressive. Didn't like the facial reconstruction they did on the documentary.  Made him look horrible, where the features were otherwise appealing in statue form. It looks like Caesar will have been dead 2,060 years this 15th March ...  I think.  The backwards dates are confusing. The Christian / Gregorian / Roman dates are insane.   Even the dates are a lie.  The world needs to quit lying and adopt the Hebrew calendar (or whatever's older than that).   It's at least  5776, from when the Hebrews started counting. Not sure I'll remember the mountain of Caesar stuff to follow up on, but it's fun looking.

Ides of March - 15th March (Roman Calendar)

Ides of March -- corresponds to 15 March (Roman calendar) -- day marked by a number of religious observances -- notorious as date of the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC -- Brutus + [fellow assassin] Cassius, dead within couple of years -- republic unable to be restored -- more permanent dictatorship ushered (ie Roman emperors) Julius Caesar -- reportedly sought dictatorship (vs. traditional republican govt) -- quest for power = assassination conspiracy by prominent Romans Christian calendar diverged significantly late 1500s -- Julian calendar (revision of Roman calendar, by Julius Caesar) -- Gregorian calendar (Catholic countries, Europe) -- Ides of March, in roman times: -- deadline for settling debts -- 'ides' fm. L. 'divide' -- date sought to split month (originally on full moon) -- calendar months & lunar cycle out of sync - connection soon lost Roman ides: -- 15 March -- 15 May -- 15 July -- 15 October -- 13 Jan, Feb, April, Jun, August, Sept, Nov, Dec. SOURCE http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/03/120315-ides-of-march-beware-caesar-what-when-shakespeare-quote/   Soothsayer. Caesar!   Caesar. Ha! who calls?     Casca. Bid every noise be still: peace yet again!     Caesar. Who is it in the press that calls on me?     I hear a tongue, shriller than all the music,     Cry 'Caesar!' Speak; Caesar is turn'd to hear.     Soothsayer. Beware the ides of March.     Caesar. What man is that?     Brutus. A soothsayer bids you beware the ides of March.     Caesar. Set him before me; let me see his face.     Cassius. Fellow, come from the throng; look upon Caesar.     Caesar. What say'st thou to me now? speak once again.     Soothsayer. Beware the ides of March.     Caesar. He is a dreamer; let us leave him: pass. SOURCE http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/views/plays/play_view.php?WorkID=juliuscaesar&Act=1&Scene=2&Scope=scene ---------------------- ---------------------- COMMENT Stand by for the 'Ides of March' .... ;) That passage's about all the Shakespeare I can handle.  lol History's really cool, tho. Might have to check out Julius Caesar once I get some practical things out of the way here. Edit:  this Caesar doco looks interesting: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dxff0fCe9TM

Germany, Hohenzollern Dynasty - German Mediatisation | French Westphalia | Napoleonic Code 1804

Ref / Info SOURCE as marked Hohenzollern dynasty of princes, electors, kings & emperors of:  Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia German Empire & Romania family originated in town of Hechingen in Swabia 11th Century -- took their name from Hohenzollern Castle -- first ancestor mentioned 1061 -- two branches:     -- Catholic Swabian ruled:         - Hohenzollern-Hechingen to 1849         - Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen to 1849         - Romania - 1866 to 1947             -- Protestant Franconian (Brandenburg-Prussian branch) became:         - Margrave of Brandenburg 1415         - Duke of Prussia in 1525                 Brandenburg-Prussia = rule by personal union after 1618         of Margraviate of Brandenburg & Duchy of Prussia                 1701 - Kingdom of Prussia created, leading to unification of Germany         1871 - German Empire created,                     with Hohenzollerns as hereditary German Emperors                    & kings of Prussia         1918 - defeat Germany in WWI     -- German Revolution followed     -- Hohenzollerns overthrown     -- Weimar Republic established, bringing end to German monarchy *Weimar Republic described elsewhere as Anglo-American puppet [wikipedia] German Mediatisation Deutsche Mediatisierung ie.  annexation of lesser states to greater state while letting ruler of lesser state retain title & partial authority fm. Old French, fm. late Latin:  immediatus / fm mediare (to be in the middle) [TFD] major territorial restructuring - 1802 - 1814 in Germany & surrounding region { Holy Roman Empire until 1806 } means:  mass mediatisation & secularisation of large number of Imperial Estates:  ecclesiastical principalities, free imperial cities, secular principalities & other minor self-ruling entitles whose independent status was removed & who were absorbed into remaining states strict meaning mediatisation =  subsumption of an immediate (German: unmittelbar) state into another state = rulers dispossessed but left with private estates & number of privileges & feudal rights historians use 'mediatisation' for entire restructuring process -- whether mediatised states survived in some form or lost all individuality MASS MEDIATISATION & SECULARIZATION OF GERMAN STATES -- came under relentless military and diplomatic pressure from revolutionary France and Napoleon -- most extensive redistribution of property and territories in German history prior to 1945 -- highpoints:     - secularization/annexation of:             - ecclesiastical territories 1802–03         - free imperial cities 1802–03             - mediatisation of secular principalities & counties 1806 Holy Roman Empire final law passed by Imperial Diet:  25 Feb. 1803 -- major redistribution of territorial sovereignty within the Empire to compensate German princes -- re annexation of West of Rhine possessions by France in wars of French Revolution -- pursuant to:  Treaty of Lunéville of 1801 -- treaty referred only to hereditary princes, none for ecclesiastical, Free Imperial Cities or for Imperial Knights who had been dispossessed https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_mediatization Kingdom of Westphalia 1807-1813 {French Vassal} -- vassal state of First French Empire -- ruled by Napoleon brother:  Jerome Bonaparte -- name misnomer -- Kingdom passed Germany's first laws granting Jews equal rights -- provided model of reform in other German states -- Kingdom was bankrupt by 1812 -- overrun by Allies  1815 -- territories mostly Prussian ruled thereafter -- most reforms remained in place In Germany Napoleon imposed: -- first written modern constitution in Germany -- French-style central administration -- agricultural reform -- liberation of serfs -- equal rights -- right to jury trial -- Napoleon demanded heavy taxes and payments, despite poverty -- conscripted soldiers -- metric system of weights & measures intro'd -- Napoleonic code enacted 1804 / French civil code -- code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, -- & specified govt jobs should go to most qualified -- abolished guilds & paved way for capitalism [wikipedia] Napoleonic Code 1804 Napoleonic Code 1804 -- French civil code -- rules governing relations re private citizens  -- (as opposed to public laws) -- exception:  commercial acts (governed by commercial law) -- purpose:  to set up general rules -- borrowed legal style from Roman Law -- incorporated MOST PARTS of Roman Law Prior to Napoleonic Code: -- South of France = Roman Law -- Northern France = customary law (feudal Frankish & Germanic institutions) -- customary law differed town to town -- Marriage & family = Canon Law (Roman Catholic Church) -- 1500s & 1600s efforts to codify local customary laws, little success -- 1500s kings codified (wrote up) individual customary laws in France -- strengthened power of customary laws to withstand Roman Laws -- saved France from Roman law adoption which occurred in Germany -- *does not make sense (to me):  Napoleonic Code is largely Roman Law, combined with French Revolution 'Enlightenment' ideology   -- as French kings consolidated power, unitary private law for all of France felt necessary -- in France (& in England) powerful, well-organised group of practising lawyers allied with King -- lawyers sought centralisation of justice in royal courts -- prior to Revolution, all major customary laws codified (differences could be seen) -- Voltaire:   change horses; change laws   -- France change via: revolutionary action war propaganda law -- law = means to overthrow of old society & building of a new society -- French Revolution sought to adjust both technical+ sociological content of the law -- primarily interested in legal problems having political & ideological involvements -- French Revolution made ideological changes   -- NEXT:  Napoleon and the codes concentrated on the technical concept of law -- pre French Revolution, vested interests blocked codification (b/c privileges) -- recording customary law in France brought legal certainty, but could not eliminate differences -- French revolution made codification necessary & possible -- powerful groups (manors & guilds) were destroyed -- secular power of Church had been suppressed -- provinces transformed into subdivision of new national state -- ideology:  for 'purely rational law' free from prejudices -- moral justification was conformity to 'dictates of reason' -- justification NOT in ANCIENT CUSTOM or MONARCHICAL PATERNALISM -- founded on 'Enlightenment' -- bourgeoisie brought down the old order -- bourgeoisie introduced the laws purportedly based on reason -- Code as a whole was highly influenced by the theory of natural law -- theory of natural law:  autonomous principles of nature independent of religion -- human beings can devise legal system for orderly, reasonable & moral life -- "it is none other than natural reason and that governs all mankind" -- loosely written to give judicial decisions room (adaptation to changing circumstances) -- original Code Civil was the law-book of the third estate -- ideal man of the bourgeoisie Civil Code was not:     - the little man     - the artisan or daily labourer -- ideal man of bourgeoisie Civil Code was:     - the man of property     - man of judgement     - man of reason     - knowledgeable re affairs & familiar with law -- existence of bourgeoisie depended on freedom, esp. economic & property (land) freedom -- therefore, the bourgeoisie Civil Code 'freedom contract' aspect dominates Civil Code French Revolution altered the traditional social order Absolute monarchy interlocking powers of king, nobility, clergy, judiciary old territorial division of the country into provinces feudal regime of land the court system Human beings inherited status, bondage of servitude & marriage influence of parental power was immense Post French Revolution: Man was considered to be also autonomous, equal, selfish, responsible and with inalienable right at birth. intermediary status groups of the old regime no longer mediators  - man had to deal with the state itself directly The State state seen as entity bound via laws to free its citizens from the traditional authority of feudal, church, family, guild, and status groups, and to equip all its citizens with equal rights Napoleon code of law in 1804 combined the revolutionary ideology with Roman Law -- revolutionary ideology:  individual liberty & equality before law -- regulated much of private law matters eg. property, will, contracts, liability & obligations -- incorporated MOST PARTS of Roman Law -- a model for civil law systems -- remains living law in large parts of the world 1804 Napoleonic Code - First Introduced to Areas Under French Control -- Belgium -- Luxembourg -- Germany (western) -- Italy (north-Western) -- Geneva -- Monaco 1804 Napoleonic Code - Introduced to Areas Later Conquered by French -- Italy -- Netherlands -- Hanseatic lands -- Germany (remainder western) -- Switzerland Hanseatic Lands Baltic / Northern European merchant gilds & market towns commercial & defensive confederation 13th to 17th centuries *own legal system & own armies / but not a city-state * nor were theys confederation of free states   / few enjoyed autonomy & liberty of free imperial cities Lübeck, Germany (port) = base merchants of Saxony & Westphalia, trading east & north Hanseatic free cities allegiance directly to Holy Roman Emperor (not local nobility) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League 1804 Napoleonic Code - still in use: -- Belgium -- Luxembourg -- Monaco French Civil Code spread: -- Europe - via military force / but retained after Waterloo defeat -- Africa - via French colonialism -- Asia - via French colonialism -- Latin America - on technical merits & opposition to Spanish & Portuguese colonial rule Napoleonic Code 1804 1.  Extinguishes:     - Primogeniture: inheritance preference to eldest son custom     - hereditary nobility     - class privileges 2.  Determines all male citizens are equal. 3.  Extinguishes ecclesiastical controls. 4.  Determines:     - freedom of person     - freedom of contract     - absolute private property rights Book 1 - law of persons - civil rights - protection of personality - domicile - guardianship - tutorship - parents/children relations - marriage - personal relations, spouses - dissolution of marriage (annulment or divorce) - women subordinated to fathers & husbands     - males controlled all family property & determined fate of chidren     - males favoured in divorce proceedings     - reforms only took place in late 1900s Book 2 - law of things / regulation of property rights     - ownership     - usufruct     - servitudes Book 3 - methods of acquiring rights     - succession     - donation     - marriage settlement     - obligations     - nominate contracts (specific types: sale, hiring, partnership, loan, deposit etc)     - legal & conventional mortgages     - limitations of actions     - prescriptions of rights        (uninterrupted possession of property --> acquisition of rights)     Obligations -- Napoleonic Code 1804 -- establishes traditional Roman Law categorities of:     - contract     - quasi-contract     - delict (wrongful act under criminal law, fm. Latin 'to offend')     - quasi-delict -- does not explicit spell out freedom of contract -- but freedom of contract is underlying principle in many provisions Napoleonic Code influence diminished with intro of: -- German Civil Code (1900) - adopted by Japan     / influenced Switzerland, Greece, Austria, Russia, & Scandinavian countries     -- Swiss Civil Code (1912) - adopted by Turkey Brasil, Mexico, Greece & Peru 20th Century = codes borrowed from German, French & Swiss traditions Napoleon in exile:  "What nothing will destroy, what will live forever, is my Civil Code." Napoleonic Code 1804  - source: 1.  wikipedia 2.  http://www.academia.edu/666717/Legal_History_II 3.  http://www.britannica.com/topic/Napoleonic-Code At:  Berlin City Palace Kaiser Wilhelm II Announced:  German entry into WWI (1914) East Germany blew up the palace to exorcise the evils of Prussian imperialism The man who would be kaiser A century after Kaiser Wilhelm led Germany to war, his great-great-grandson is attempting to revive his family’s fortunes http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/the-man-who-would-be-kaiser-1.1884029 ---------------------- ---------------------- Palace where Kaiser Wilhelm II declared the First World War is to be rebuilt, 100 years later  "In 1914, as in 2014, Germany was the economic success story of Europe. It was an emerging world power, its rise driven by astonishingly fast industrialisation that had seen it quadruple its foreign trade in just 30 years, and overtake Britain in steel production."  [COMMENT:  making Germany a target of British aggression - both WWI & WWI (to finish the job of destroying Britain's European rival)] http://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-one/11008289/Palace-where-Kaiser-Wilhelm-II-declared-the-First-World-War-is-to-be-rebuilt-100-years-later.html ---------------------- ---------------------- COMMENT Just some of what I've enjoyed checking out.