1871 - Unification of Germany

Marsch 'Preußens Gloria' Holy Roman Empire -- Emperor known as:  Emperor of all the Germanies -- higher nobility referred to as:     -- 'Princes of Germany'     -- 'Princes of the Germanies'   EAST FRANCIA -- lands, formerly known as EAST FRANCIA -- governed as kingdoms since before rise of CHARLEMANGE (800 AD) -- Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation -- 500 independent states -- cultural, educational, linguistic & religious minor variances gradually develop -- Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation -- effectively dissolved on abdication of:  Emperor Francis II (1806) -- during WAR OF THE THIRD COALITION -- result:  legal, administrative & political disruption -- bond:  historic, linguistic, cultural, legal -- plus shared experience of French Revolution Wars & Napoleonic Wars -- 'European liberalism' intellectual basis:  unification challenging dynastic/absolutist models 1871 - Unification of Germany -- politically & administratively integrated nation state -- on:  18 January 1871 -- at Versailles Palace, France -- in Hall of Mirrors -- princes of German states -- proclaim Wilhem I of Prussia German Emperor -- following French capitulation in Franco-Prussian War North German Confederation (NGC) (led by Kingdom of Prussia) -- chancellor Otto von Bismarck -- drawing southern German states into alliance with NGC a bonus -- Bismark may have exploited circumstances as they unfolded -- or he provoked, to encourage German unification -- General Staff - head:  Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke vs. Second French Republic -- Napoleon III -- French press and parliament demanded a war -- generals of Napoleon III assured France would win -- PM  Émile Ollivier -- political disunity in France (war solution) -- July 1870, French parliament voted to declare war on Kingdom of Prussia Franco-Prussian War (1870) -- July 1870 - May 1871 -- July 1870, French parliament voted to declare war on Kingdom of Prussia German Military Advantage -- German coalition faster at mobilising its troops -- German numbers superior -- Germans had better training & leadership -- Germans made more effective use of modern tech (esp. rail-roads & artillery) -- series of French defeats -- culminated in:      -- Siege of Metz      -- Battle of Sedan -- Germans decisively defeat Second Empire French -- Napoleon III captured at Sedan -- French Govt of National Defence declared:  Third Republic -- war continued anor 5 mths -- German victory over new French armies in northern France -- Paris falls 1871 -- revolutionary uprising ('Paris Commune') seizes power (2 mths) -- suppressed by regular French army in concert with Germans May 1871 -- German states proclaim union as:  GERMAN EMPIRE -- Treaty of Frankfurt - 10 May 1871 -- gives Germany most of ALSACE & some parts LORRIANE -- becomes imperial German territory of:  Alsace-Lorriane -- Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen European balance of power (in existence since Congress of Vienna 1815) upset re: 1.  German conquest of France 2.  unification of Germany --  Otto von Bismarck large influence on international affairs for next 2 decades Among World War I factors relating back to Franco-Prussian War: -- French determined to regain Alsace-Lorraine -- French fear of another Franco-German war -- British apprehension re balance of power Other: -- Germans viewed French as the traditional destabiliser of Europe -- weakening of France required to prevent further breaches of peace -- Bismark had reportedly altered telegram sent by William I (Ems Dispatch) -- & released it to public -- at issue at time was throne of Spain -- Prussian prince put forward -- France anticipates encirclement by alliance b/w Prussia & Spain -- French diplomatic pressure on Prussia -- Prussia withdraws candidacy of Prussian Prince -- allegedly altered telegraph -- sounded as if Prussian king had insulted French envoy -- French public opinion inflamed -- French politicians vote for war -- French looking for excuse for war:  diplomatic defeat in 1866 -- cocky French thought they'd beat the Prussians -- plus French had growing domestic problems -- French historians dispute this ... but they would   -- Ems Telegram -- "This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull" -- Bismarck -- French foreign minister declares he felt he received a 'slap' -- PM Emile Ollivier the war hawk -- early incarnation of CIA must have been there was well:     -- 15,000 to 20,000 bearing flags & banners     -- march Paris streets, demanding war -- French declare war -- southern German states immediately side with Prussia French Military Disadvantage French low on peacetime regulars & conscripts -- there had been the following French military actions:     -- Crimean War     -- Algeria     -- Franco-Austrian War (in Italy)     -- Franco-Mexican War        *intended reforms re universal conscription (rather than ballot)     + shorter service periods     = intended to swell French numbers     -- but Franco-Prussian War broke out befor reforms implemented entirely -- Prussian Army was composed not of regulars but conscripts -- Prussia + North & South German allies = 1 million soldiers in time of war *wow, this is exciting ... Feels almost like I'm there, 'Mademoiselle la France' ... I double dare you ;)   Germans Military -- move in small groups / harder to target (verses line/column advancement) -- emphasis on encirclement tactics -- emphasis on artillery whenever possible -- German numbers advantage made encirclement tactic easier -- ageing Dryese needle gun (25-year old design), Germans -- BUT, Germans had:   Krupp 6-pounder (3 kg) steel breech-loading cannons -- equals longer range & higher rate of fire than French cannons / faulty time fuses -- Prussian army unique in Europe for being only to have 'General Staff' -- peacetime purpose was to prepare overall war strategy -- wartime purpose:  direct operational movement, logistics & communications -- officers hand-picked from Prussian War Academy (Kriegsakademie) -- Field Marshall Helmuth von Moltke, head of General Staff -- adopted new tech, esp. railroad & telegraph -- result:  large forces mobilised in coordinated & speedy fashion *Wow, I'm impressed ... now I know why the Prussians were considered militarists -- Prussians sound exactly what you want in a military force -- as exciting as this is, i need a bit of a break for the time being more https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War NOTE:  Italians cannot be trusted in war 1.  Changed sides WWI 2.  Garibaldi pro Germans in Franco-Prussian War       goes from "war to the death to Bonaparte"       to "rescue the French Republic by very means"     Garibaldi commands Italian volunteer army France      *these volunteer Italian forces had fought during:         -- successful unification of Italy         -- in South America     -- after French surrender in Paris to Germans, army disbanded     -- Garibaldi elected to serve in National Assembly of Dijon     -- but he was shouted down & resigned his seat / returned to Italy     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_the_Vosges WWII occupation of Paris must have been of cultural, national, historical significance to the German command, military, historians etc. - goes all the way back to Napoleon & unification etc.    Timeline Leading up to German Unification 1804:      -- Napoleon Bonaparte self-crowns:  emperor of France     -- Napoleon Bonaparte begins conquests of Germanic states     -- Francis 1 of Austria, declares new Austrian Empire in response 1806:      -- Napoleon groups Germanic states into CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE, French client-state     -- dissolution of Austrian-led HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 1815:     -- defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte     -- Congress of Vienna:  reinstates Germanic states into GERMAN CONFEDERATION     -- under leadership of:  Austrian Empire 1819     -- Carlsbad Decrees:     -- suppress pan-Germanic activities to avoid creation of German state     -- Kingdom of Prussia institutes:  customs union with Confederation states 1834:     -- Prussian-led customs union:        evolves to Zollverein (incl. all Confed. except Austrian Empire)     -- Zollverein = German Customs Union - tariffs & economic policies management     -- Zollverein (customs union) reduces competition between Germanic states     -- Austria highly protected industry + Prince von Metternich opposed to inclusion     -- Luxembourg, although not state of German Reich, remains in Zollverein to 1919     -- Zollverein was solution to 1,800 customs barriers          in German-speaking HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE     -- cemented economic ties re Prussian & Hohenzollern territories     -- Hohenzollern family = ruling family of Prussia     -- Zollverein:  UPHELD protectionist tariff system with foreign trade partners         https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zollverein 1848:     -- revolts over German Confederation     -- force King Frederick William IV of Prussia       to grant constitution to Confederation     -- Frankfurt parliament (est. 1848) attempts to proclaim united Germany     -- refused by William IV       -- question of uniting Germany under:            1.  Kleindeutch - small German          = exclusion of Austria from German unificaiton                2.  Großdeutsch (Grossdeutsch) - Greater German         = inclusion of Austria 1861- 1862:     -- King Wilhelm I becomes King of Prussia     -- appoints OTTO VON BISMARCK, PM & Foreign Minister (1862)     -- Bismark favours:  'blood & iron' to create unified Germany 1864:     -- Danish-Prussian War, opposed to Danish Schleswig into K.Denmark     -- Austrian Empire deliberately drawn into war     -- Austro-Prussian victory     -- Schleswig (northern part)         -- governed by Prussia     -- Holstein (southern part)         -- governed by Austria     -- per TREATY OF VIENNA (1864) 1866:  Bismark accuses Austrian Empire causing troubles re Schleswig (Prussian)     -- Prussian troops take control of Austrian held Holstein     -- Austria declares war on Prussia:         -- Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks' War)         -- Austrian defeat     -- TREATY OF PRAGUE (1866)     -- formerly dissolves German Confederation     -- Prussia creates NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION     -- incls. all Germanic states except PRO-FRENCH southern kingdoms:         -- BAVARIA         -- BADEN         -- WURTHEMBERG 1870:     -- Napoleon III demands Rhineland territories          for neutrality re Austro-Prussian War   -- Spanish Succession Question (1868)   -- Elms Telegram (1870)     -- also at issue     -- France DECLARES WAR on Prussia   1871:  Franco-Prussian War     -- Prussians capture Paris capital (of Second French Empire)     -- TREATY OF FRANKFURTH (1871)     -- incorporates German (likely Catholic) pro-French states:         -- BAVARIA         -- BADEN         -- WURTHEMBERG     -- into NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION     -- new united Germany -- GERMAN REICH proclaimed     -- King Wilhelm I proclaimed leader by Bismarck        -- with German troops in Paris, Napoleon III dissolves Second French Empire     -- French create new republic:  Third French Republic     -- under Adolphe Thiers (Greek & Franco-Levantine heritage + Corsican)     -- Adolphe Thiers     -- various posts     -- premier + minister of foreign affairs (1836 - 1840)     -- support of pasha Muhammad Ali almost leads to war         French - British conflicting Middle East policy     -- forced to resign due to King's intent to avert war     -- various entries [skip]     -- August 1871 he became president of the republic     -- lobbying for France under conservative republic     -- first task to restore public order     -- in concert with Germans, ruthlessly used troops to defeat     -- rebellion - 'Commune' (March-May 1871)     -- destroying French socialist & workers' movements, setting back many years     -- resigned due to lack of support from monarchists     -- skilled in finance / paid off indemnity due to Germans ahead of time     -- his military law of 1872 failed to establish adequate professional army     -- 5 years conscription:  depleted labour force        -- effected return of Napoleon Bonaparte body to France from St. Helena in 1840    British hell camps - struggle for the freedom of the Boerevolk         St. Helena     -- volcanic island south Atlantic ocean, tiny:  16km x 8km     -- discovered by Portuguese 1502     -- British Overseas Territory     -- notable exile prisoners:         -- Napoleon Bonaparte         -- Dinuzulo kaCetshwayo (leading Zulu army against British rule)         -- over 5,000 Boers (Second Boer War)         -- aka  Second Anglo-Boer War / South African War (1899 - 1902)         -- British colonial might against:              Transvaal Republic 'Zuid-Afrikaansche Republic' (ZAR) (Dutch)         -- British hold large prisoners of war & families in concentration camps         -- British effect scorched earth policy:  Boer lands, stock, farms destroyed         -- farms belonging to Boers (Dutch descendants), plundered & burned         -- animals belonging to Boers killed before helpless women & children         -- intent:  deprivation of food & demoralisation         -- women & children left homeless in open field - in bitter winter (nights ?)         -- Boers continued to fight         -- British herded women & children into open cattle trucks & drove them to open concentration camps         -- British lied and claimed 'voluntary camps'         -- erected camps in most unsuitable locations:  swamp lands         -- by 1900 (Oct):  58,883 Boers in concentration camps Transvaal            & 45,306 Free State         -- tattered tends, no protection against elements, designed to kill as many women & children as possible         -- halving of rations / children death / purposeful murder              as cold-blooded British state policy         -- intended to ensure surrender of Boers British unable to defeat on battlefield         -- poison, copper, ground glass, fishhooks, razors in rations         -- lack of sanitary conditions:  epidemic / disease (eg 13 toilets to 3,500 / or 1 toilet for 170 elsewhere)                       -- British responsible for:  27,000 deaths of Boer women & children         -- so British oligarchy could claim mineral riches                   http://www.whale.to/b/british6.html             https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Helena               -- 1815 British select St Helena as site of detention for Napoleon Bonaparte     -- exiled 1815     -- Napoleon Bonaparte died 1821    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Germany

---------------------- ----------------------

COMMENT

Be militarily prepared & don't declare war unless you are.  

Never underestimate British ruling class' ruthlessness and the greed.

Don't rely on Italy in war:  Italy switches sides.

Prometheus to Military-Mercantile Privatism

Prometheus to Military-Mercantile Privatism Prometheus Greek - 'forethought' -- a Titan deity in Greek mythology -- creator of man & greatest benefactor -- stole fire from Mount Olympus & gave it to man -- sided with Zeus & Olympian gods -- in struggle w/ Cronus (Kronos) & other Titans -- on the conquering side of the cataclysmic war of Gk. gods -- Titanomachy (Gk. mythology:  10-year series of battles Titans v. Olympians), where Zeus + Olympian gods defeated Cronus & other Titans -- Zeus punished Prometheus for theft of fire & gift to mortals -- overthrown by his son Zeus & imprisoned in Tartarus -- by chaining him to a rock in the Caucasus where an eagle eternally ate his liver -- Tartarus (Tartaros):  deep abyss dungeon of torment for wicked - prison for Titans -- as far below Hades as earth is from heaven -- Tartarus both a deity & a place in underworld comment: ancient Greeks fond of bird liver-eating punishments -- Tartarus:  only known in Hellenistic Jewish literature from Greek text 1 Enoch (400-200BC) -- god placed archangel Uriel in charge of world & of Tartus -- Tartus:  place where 200 fallen Watchers (angels) imprisoned -- Tartus appears in sections of Jewish Sibylline Oracles -- ascribed to:  ascribed to the Sibyls, prophetesses -- uttered divine revelations in frenzied state -- Sibylline Oracles - valuable info re classical mythology -- & early first millennium Gnostic, Jewish & Christian beliefs   -- Gnostic systems:  dualistic -- Gnosticism - anti-Judaism (principles) -- Gnostic ideas found in mystical study of Kabbalah -- Kabbalists originated in 1200s Provence - centre of Gnostic Cathars -- 13th-century Zohar ('Splendor') - foundational text:  Kabbalah -- written in style of Jewish Aramaic Midrash (Rabbinical homilies) -- clarifies x5 books of Torah with new Kabbalistic system -- Gnosticism pre-dated Christianity, included pre-Christian beliefs & practices common to -- early Christianity, Neoplatonism, Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Roman mystery religions, Zoroastrianism -- esp. Zurvanism Zurvanism -- Zurvanism - extinct branch of Zoroastrianism:  divinity Zurvan -- sired opposite twins Zhura Mazda & Angra Mainyu -- Zurvanism / Zurvan:  god of infinite time and space - was:  aka ('one', 'alone') -- transcendental & neutral god without passion -- god for whom there was no distinction between good or evil -- Zurvanism:  royal sanction during Sassanid rule (226-651 AD) -- Zurvan related to late Sanskrit word sarva ('all', 'entire') -- Zoroastrianism originally monist religion -- 'monism' - there exists one single thing:  universe -- divisions artificial -- different types of 'monism' concept comment:  so we have the Iranian/Persian twins (Zurvanism) and the Greek mythology twins ... Greeks borrowed twins idea/story from the Iranians? Zurvanism "...dominant approach to the subject was that Zurvanite ideas originated in a confrontation of Iranian with Babylonian or Greek ideas, the Zurvanite hypothesis came to function as a shield to protect “proper” (Iranian) Zoroastrianism from a hybridized version of that religion that was contact-induced. This in turn led to the interpretation of Zurvanism as a “heresy” or even a “betrayal” of “true” Zoroastrianism, even though it clearly represented a dominant interpretation of Zoroastrian theology at the Sasanian court (Boyce, 1996)." http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zurvanism [comment:  this looks an interesting article ... not time to read fully.] Kronos -- leader & youngest of first generation of Titans -- divine descendants of Uranus, the sky & Gaia (earth) -- overthrew father & ruled in mythological Golden Age -- Golden Age, sequenced - each worse than one prior -- Golden Age associated with reign of Saturn -- primordial innocence & harmony in all of nature -- symbolism:  -- harpe (type of sickle), scythe, sickle, grain, snake, crow -- used to castrate & depose Uranus, his father -- patron of harvest -- identified with Roman deity, Saturn Catharism -- fm. Gk. Katharoi ('the pure [ones]') -- Christian dualist or Gnostic revival -- thrived southern Europe -- esp. northern Italy & southern France -- from 1100s tp 1300s -- taught by ascetic priests (abstinence) -- Catholic church denounced rituals of Catharism  -- Catharism - roots in Paulican movement, Armania & Byzantine Anatolia -- + Bogomils of First Bulgarian Empire -- influenced by Paulicans resettled in Thrace (Philipopolis) by the Byzantines -- Cather self-identification:  'Bons Hommes' ('good men') -- idea of TWO GODS or PRINCIPLES / one good & one evil -- CENTRAL TO Cathar beliefs catharsis -- purifying or cleaning of emotions -- release of emotiona tensions -- New Latin fm. Greek 'Katharsis' fm. 'kathairein' TO PURGE from katharos, PURE [thefreedictionary]   3100 BC - Stonehenge Stage 1  -  Completed -- Stonehenge stage 1 -- pre-dates Sumerian Cuneiform from proto-literate Uruk -- Stonehenge functions as: -- first enclosed cremation cemetery British Isles   -- this pre-dates oldest surviving Egyptian pyramid -- Stonehenge final stage;  altar, portal, station stones -- consideration of solar alignments demonstrated -- Stonehenge final stage predates:     -- Great Pyramid of Giza     -- Minoan civilisation (Crete)     -- Sumerian epics (written, surviving)     -- existence of Judeo-Christian / Islamic Abraham     -- Stonehenge Pre-dates:         -- Judaism         -- Christianity         -- Islamism         -- Hinduism         -- Buddhism         -- Jainism     -- Stonehenge Pre-dates scriptures of Hinduism:  Rig Veda     -- development of Stonehenge ends:  1600 BC -- completed Stonehenge predates:     -- earliest monotheistic religion:  Akhenaten, Egypt     -- Akkadian epics     -- biblical Exodus:  Israelites from Egypt     -- Vedic texts (Upanishads) - containing early emergence         re central concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism & Jainism     -- pyramid temples in Central America     -- the Torah     -- Jainism     -- Taoism     -- Buddhism     -- Confucianism     -- Zoroastrianism (earliest recorded:  440 BC)     -- trial of Socrates     -- Siege of Jerusalem (rise of Rabbinic Judaism)     -- Manichaean Gnosticism     -- Theodosius I declaration:        Nicene Christianity - as state religion of the Roman Empire  (380 AD)     -- decline of Rome 410         https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_religion El - the Phoenician Kronos -- on encounter with Phoenicians & later Hebrews, Hellenes identified Semitic El with Kronos -- pre-Trojan War, Sanchuniathon (Phoenician historian) -- indicates Kronos originally Canaanite ruler who founded Byblos & was deified -- Kronus considered cruel & tempestuous force of chaos & disorder by Gks. -- Kronus considered intermediary between Uranus & Zeus -- was larger aspect of Roman religion / Saturnalia - festival in his honour -- at least one temple to Saturn existed in Roman kingdom Due to Kronos importance to Romans -- Kronos' Roman variant:  Saturn -- large influence on Western culture -- Saturday:  Latin Dies Saturni (Day of Saturn) Prometheus -- Latin fm. Greek -- Titan who stole fire from Olympus & gave it to man -- Zeus chained him to a rock & sent an eagle to eat his liver -- liver which grew back daily  / punishment -- chained until until Hercules freed him   [thefreedictionary] Epimetheus -- twin Titan brother of Prometheus -- 'after-thought' / 'hindsight'  catharsis -- purifying or cleaning of emotions -- release of emotions tensions -- New Latin fm. Greek 'Katharsis' fm. 'kathairein' TO PURGE from katharos, PURE [thefreedictionary] Sanchuniathon -- purported Phoenician author -- x3 lost works, originally Phoenician -- survives only in partial paraphrase & summary -- of Greek translation of Philo of Byblos -- fragments comprise most extended literary source -- re Phoenician religion (in Greek or Latin) -- Sanchuniathon wrote history of Jews -- based on information from priest of god Jevo -- priest:  Hierombal (ie Jeruba'al) -- history dedicated to Abelbal or Abibal, King of Berytus Byblos -- in Lebanon -- was:  Gubal, Canaanite city in Bronze Age -- was:  Gebal (Phoenician) Iron Age -- was:  Geval (Hebrew) -- much later:  Gibelet (during Crusades) -- Cannaanite/Phoenician name - Gubal, Gebal) -- fm. 'gb' = 'well' or 'origin' & El (supreme god of Byblos's pantheon -- now known by Arabic name:  Jubayl or Jbeil -- Arabic likely derived from Phoenician 'GBL' - boundary or mountain peak -- & other (Ugaritic, north-west Semitic) ... Arabic 'jabal' جبل = 'mountain' Hebrew: harar or hahr - hill, mountain Byblos (Giblet, Gibelet) -- important Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem -- military base in 1000 AD & 1100 AD -- ruled by Embriaco family -- Embriaco family - Genoese adventurers -- Guglielmo Embriaco  -- Genoese merchant & military leader -- he & brother arrive Jaffa 1099 w. squadron of galleys -- expedition:  private undertaking -- lumber from dismantled ships converted to siege towers -- assisted capture of Jaffa -- granted title:  consul of Genoese army -- Crusaders neeeded reinforcements -- Embriaco brings back fleeet of 26 or 27 galley, 4-6 cargo ships & to 4,000 men -- Genoese were promised one-third of proceeds of campaign https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Embriaco Guglielmo Embriaco -- military leader First Crusade (1097-1104) -- commanded large Genoese fleets -- took ports of:     -- San Simeon     -- Arsuf     -- Casarea -- triumphant return to Genoa -- elected consul of republic 1102 -- virtual control of city, with relatives -- 1100s fortress tower of the family is near:  Santa Maria di Castello -- overlooks city & harbour -- heavily restored 1923 -- family extinct 1200s Guglielmo Embriaco      Opened trading colonies in:     -- Antioch     -- & other in 'holy land' -- Embriaco family  -- established a monopoly on trade to Antioch & Syria -- which was source of wealth & power -- family establishes self in Gibelet (Jubai) in Tripoli (Lebanon) -- remains 200 years, until disappearance with last Crusader states:  1290s EARLY CRUSADING:  MILITARY-MERCANTILE PRIVATISM of nobles: Embriaco Family -- old noble family of Genoa -- descended from:  Ghibeline Spinola clan -- played role in Genoese nobility conquering eastern trade routes -- & building commercial empire in Mediterranean 1000 AD to 1100 AD source above: Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia By Christopher Kleinhenz Philo of Byblos -- aka Herennius Phlon -- antiquarian writer - historical works in Greek -- known mainly re:  Phoenician history assembled from writings of Sanchuniathon -- Philo born 100s in Byblos, Lebanon -- lived in reign of Hadrian -- may have achieved status as Roman citizen -- Philo's writings mix up: -- Phoenician lore with Greek mythology, -- Zoroastrian beliefs & ancient Egyptian beliefs https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronus https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurvanism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartarus https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibylline_Oracles https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronus https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epimetheus_%28mythology%29 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_religion https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Embriaco *summary from various Wikipedia entries (unless otherwise marked) -- all look-ups not listed COMMENT What I looked at. Too tired to properly spell check. Want to keep looking, but I can't. Really tired & I've given myself a headache looking at this. LOL Got drawn to Stonehenge. Zurvanism sounds sensible:  if there was a god, surely it would be a neutral and indifferent one. *Maybe they're not as sensible as they seem ... yet another religion with a negative view of women. Wonder if anyone's done a study on this oddity of woman-hater religious devotees?

Bohemia to Sumer via Iran & Back

[NOTE:  ALL INFO FROM WIKIPEDIA SITE, UNLESS OTHERWISE MARKED /  *SOME WIKIPEDIA URL ENTRIES MAY NOT BE LISTED] BOHEMIA Bohemia (+ Bavaria) -- named after Boii -- Boii large Celtic tribe -- known to Romans (migrations & settlement in northern Italy & other) -- another part of Boii Celtic tribe moves west -- west moving Boii with Helvetti (Gallic, Swiss region) move into southern France -- this led to Julius Caesar Gaulish campaign of 58 BC -- mass movement of Helvetii & Boii left southern Germany & Bohemia -- SEVERELY DEPOPULATED - lightly inhabited 'desert' -- Suebic tribes arrive, speaking Germanic languages -- become dominant over remaining Celtic groups -- name referred to by Roman Tacitus & Strabo: Boiohaemum -- 'Boii' after Celtic tribe -- 'Heim' Germanic for 'home' -- thus: Boii-home -- south east in Hungary were: Sarmatians tribes SARMATIANS -- large confederation of proto-Iranians / Central Asia 2000 BC -- peak expansion 1000 BC, from: -- Iranian Plateau -- entire Eurasian Steppe -- Great Hungarian Plain (west) -- Ordos Plateau (east) WESTERN IRANIAN PERSIAN EMPIRES -- dominated much of ancient world at this period -- left important cultural legacy -- Eastern Iranian nomads of steppe, role in development Euraisan nomadism & Silk Route ANCIENT IRANIAN PEOPLES -- Alans -- Batricians -- Dahae -- Massagetae -- Medes -- Khwarezmians -- Parthians -- Saka -- Sarmatians -- Scythians -- Sogdians -- other: Central Asia, Caucasus, Eastern Europe & Iranian Plat. -- 1000 AD, Western Iranian tribes area of settlement -- reduced by Slavic, Germanic, Turkic & Mongol expansions -- + subject of Slavicisations -- Iranian tribes: -- balochs, Kurds, Gilaks, Lurs, Mazanderanis, Ossetians, Pashtuns, -- Pamiris, Persians, Tajiks, Talysh, Wakhis & Yaghnobis -- Iranian - 'Aryana' (Old Iranian ethnicity) -- from Sanskrit - 'Arya' -- 'Iran' is from: 'Aryanam (lit. '(Land) of the Aryans' -- proto-Indo-Rianian: 'Arya' - 'hospitable' (self referential) -- anor meaning: 'noble' (see Avesta) -- homeland estimated: -- Herat (Pliny view) - Pliny the Elder, Roman empire philosopher & friend of e. Vespasian - army entry / son of equestrian - took part in the Roman conquest of the Chauci (ancient Germanic tribe) - plus other entries -- entire expanse of Iranian Plateau (Strabo) - Greek geographer, philosopher, historian -- b. Pontus (in what is now Turkey) -- extensive travels / moved Rome age 21 -- 'Iranian' is distinct from 'Iran' state in academic usage -- citizens of Iran are not necessarily of the Iranian peoples -- 'Aryan' - Old Iranian term - solely re ethnicity -- name 'Arya' lives in ethnic names: eg Alan, Ossetian (Ir + Iron) -- name 'Iran' in usage since Sasanid times http://sasanika.org/ SASSANID Empire - 224–651 -- succeeded Parthian Empire -- known to these peoples as 'Ērānshahr' in Middle Persian lang. -- peak of ancient Iranian civilization -- considerable influence on Roman culture in Sasanian period -- influence reached: Western Europe, Africa, China, India Knowledge | Culture -- what later was referred to as 'Islamic culture' in art, architecture, music & other -- was transferred from Sasanids to Muslim-conquered regions -- so it is in fact Iranian culture, art etc. -- & the Saudis Arab conquering rulers    (or their later pan-ethnic Arab-speaking Arab empire subjects) -- credited instead of the Iranians (Persians) more info https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire Iranian | Persian Sassanid Empire Give back Yemen!! [maps] PERSIA / IRAN Arab Conquest --  632-634:  Arabia Peninsula conquered & converted by Arab armies -- 635 AD:  Christian province Syria falls to Arab armies -- 636 AD:  Antioch falls to Arab armies -- 638 AD:  Jerusalem falls to Arab armies, after 1 year siege   -- 637 AD:  Persia falls Arab armies -- Battle of Kadisiya, close to Euphrates -- 637 AD:  Arabs sack Ctesiphon (Persian) -- 641 AD:  Arab armies defeat Persians at Nahavand -- 642 AD:  Arab armies capture Isfahan -- 643 AD:  Arab armies capture Herat   -- Persia now under Umayyad Caliphate (for next century) Zoroastrian Parsees  -- Last Sassanian emperor 5 years old -- Assassinated at 651 AD (at Merv)  -- Parsees number years from start of his reign (632 AD) Conversion majority  Iran / Persia / by, say, 937 AD -- x3 centuries after Arab invasion & conquest of Persia -- majority convert to religion of new ruling caste (the Arabs)  Zoroastrian Parsees -- Zoroastrians seek liberty:  move to India, Gujarat -- Zoroastrians established in India as ‘Parsees’ (Persian for ‘Persians’) -- remaining few Zoroastrians in Iran in remote cities (Yazd, Kerman) -- known to Arabs as ‘gabar’ ( infidel? ) http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ebw   -- Sassanids:  last great Iranian empire before the Muslim conquest & conversion to Islam -- for almost 400 years, leading world power, along with -- arch rival: Roman-Byzantine Empire more info https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire ARIYA -- 'Ariya' in royal Old Persian inscriptions 1. name of language (Old Persian inscription Darius the Great, in Behistun) 2. ethnic background of Darius (inscriptions: (1) Naqsh-e-Rostam & Susa) 3. definition of God of Iranian peoples: Ahuramazda (1. Persepolis, Xerxes inscription) (2. Behistun inscription, Elamite version) INSCRIPTIONS -- Dna, Dse Dariius & Xerxes self description: -- an Achaemenian -- a Persian son -- of a Persian -- an Aryan -- of Aryan stock -- however, Darius the Great, called his language 'Iranian' language -- modern scholars refer to it as: 'Old Persian' -- because the language is ancestor of modern Persian language Old Iranian Language -- comprised of: 1. Iran, north-east Avestan (associated with sacred Zoroastrian language) 2. Iran, south-west Old Persian -- a branch of Indo-Iranain language -- Iranian languages classified either 'eastern' or 'western' -- in this classification, Avestan is eastern * 1 + 2:  together, comprising:  'Old Iranian' lang. *Old Avestan = closely related to Old Persian *Old Avestan = close to Vedic Sanskrit (some extent) *Old Avestan = believed ancestor of Pashto dialect AVESTAN 1. Old Avestan (Gathic Avestan) 2. Younger Avestan (not evolved from Old Avestan, diff. dialect) - Younger Avestan = several transformations 3rd or 4th century AD - Script Developed - Din dabrieh ('religion writing') -- re writing Avestan -- but Avestan by then EXTINCT LANGUAGE FOR MANY CENTURIES -- remaining only liturgical language of Avesta -- memorised by priesthood & recited by rote -- script defised = Din dabrieh ('religion writing') -- 53 distinct characters -- written right-to-left -- x13 "Book" Pahlavi / Pahlavi script -- in turn, based on Aramaic script symbols -- incorporates other: eg. derived from Greek / + punctuation symbols -- Avestan alphabet has one letter that has NO CORRESPONDING SOUND in Avestan lang. -- /I/ character added to write Pazend texts -- Avestan script is alphabetic (single letter = sound (not idea, word etc) -- reason being: need for phonetic precision -- Pazend = one of writing systems used for Middle Persian lang. PAZEND -- one of writing systems used for Middle Persian lang. -- used mainly for writing: commentaries (Zend) -- re Avesta (Zoroastrian sacred texts) -- derives from 'paiti zainti' ('for commentary') or similar -- Pazend = variation of Avestan alphabet (Din Dabrieh) -- unlike Pahlavi, no 'ideograms' (graphic symbols) - carrying idea, concept etc -- Pahlavi ieogams borrowed from Semitic lang, eg. Aramaic ZOROASTRIANISM -- Sassanid defeat by Muslims -- Zoroastrianism gradually supplanted by foreign Arabic religion -- Parzend lost purpose (ie Middle Persian sanctified writing) -- Parzend soon ceased to be used for composition -- late 1000 AD or 1100 AD, Indian Zoroastrians (Parsis) -- begin translating Avestan (or Middle Persian) alphabet -- interpretation = 'pa-zand' (Parzand texts) -- Pazand texts = late & often corrupt Middle Persian pronunciation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazend -- Avestan (sacred language, Zoroastrian) associated with -- north-eastern Iran (Old Persian) PROTO-INDIAN-EUROPEAN (PIE) -- is ancestral to following languages: -- Celtic -- Italic (incl. Romance) -- Germanic -- Baltic -- Slavic -- Indo-Iranian -- Albanian -- Armenian -- Greek -- Tocharian not included: Basque Hungarian Estonian Finnish IRANIAN derived language regions: Iran (Iranian) parts of Pakistan (Balochi and Pashto) Afghanistan (Pashto and Dari) Tadjikistan (Tajiki) INDO-IRANIAN language spread: Indo-Aryan Sanskrit Urdu + many related languages AVESTA -- sacred language -- closely related to Vedic Sanskrit -- Vedic Sanskrit, oldest preserved Indo-Aryan language 1000 BC - Division into EASTERN + WESTERN -- indicated by: Avestan vs. Old Persian (south-west Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian) -- Avestan - aka 'Zend' = Iranian language of Eastern Iranian division -- used in Zoroastrian scripture -- related region: Arachosia Aria Bactria Margiana -- region area, comprising almost entirely: - AFGHANISTAN - PAKISTAN (parts) - TAJIKISAN - TURKMENISTAN - UZBEKISTAN  Distinctive art: -- 'Yaz culture' of Bactria-Margiana (parts of Afghanistan) -- Yaz culture = early Iron Age culture c. 1500 to 1100 BC -- likely indicative of early East Iranian culture, as described in Avesta -- no burials related to culture found -- taken as evidence of: Zoroastrian practice (sky burial) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz_culture Western Iranian peoples in the Near East -- dominated by the various Assyrian empires -- subsequent alliance with: -- Medes -- Persians  + rebelling: -- Babylonians - fm. Akkad city, capital Akkadian empire -- location of Akkad is unknown -- indigenous Semitic + Sumerian united under one rule -- controlled Mesopotamia, Levant, parts Iran -- initially bilingual: Akkadian replaced Sumerian -- Sumerian 'native tongue' - lang. of Sumer (southern Mesopotamia, mod. Iraq - 3000 BC) Sumer -- first ancient URBAN civilisation southern Mesopotamia (now southern Iraq) -- poss. first settled: c. 5500 and 4000 BC -- by pre-Semitic Caucasoid / linguistically isolated Sumerian -- Sumerian: names of cities, rivers, occupations etc - show this -- language isolate = natural language / no relationship to other branches Eridu -- site of earliest city in southern Mesopotamia -- poss. oldest city in the world -- 12km southwest of Ur -- one of numerous Sumerian cities that arose around temples -- temples mud brick & built on top of one another, growing upward -- villages growing outward: larger city built -- site is near: Basra -- city associated w. temple of Enki (Sumerian water god) -- counterpart to Ea (Akkadian water god) -- potentially original Babel & site of Tower of Babel, rather than Babylon -- per Egyptologist David Rohl -- urban nucleus of Eridu: Enki temple (house of the aquifer) -- later 'house of the waters' -- period of Ur III ziggurat built over remains of previous temples https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridu -- Scythians - large group Iranian, Eurasian nomads -- Chaldeans - small Semitic nation, absorbed into Babylonia native population -- Cimmerians - poss. Thracian w. Iranian ruling class - neighbours of ancient Macedonia ALLIANCE vs. ASSYRIANS: -- helped the Medes to claim Nineveh 612 BC -- result: collapse neo-Assyrian Empire by 605 BC -- Medes establish Median kingdom -- Ecbatana - royal centre (old Persian 'place of gathering') -- city of Media, western Iran Back to Bohemia ... Bohemia -- part of early Slavic state of Great Moravia -- r. 870–894, Svatopluk I -- collapse from internal conflict -- plus nomadic Magyar invader attack -- following Svatopluk I death -- however, due to incorporation into Moravian Empire -- extensive Christianisation of population -- native monarchy rose to throne: Czech lands to be ruled -- for next several 100 years by Premyslid dynasty -- who entered into semi-vassalage to the Frankish rulers -- via 'alliance' / facilitated by Bohemia conversion to Christianity 9th C. -- close relations developed & continued with: East Frankish kingdom -- which devolved from Carolingian Empire into East Francia -- which eventually became: HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE -- 955 Battle of Lechfeld, Boleslaus I -- decisive victory Holy Roman Empire & Bohemia vs. invading Magyars -- Bohemia granted March of Moravia by German emperor Otto the Great -- under HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, Bohemia largely autonomous state -- control of Holy Roman Empire reasserted -- when Jaromir of Bohemia granted fief of Kingdom of Bohemia -- by King Henry II, Holy Roman Empire -- with promise to hold as vassal once Prague reoccupied with German army 1004 -- ending the rule of Boleslaw I of Poland Other rule: -- Luxembourg dynasty, (via marriage) circa. 1310 -- John I of Bohemia crowned -- son: Charles IV -- Charles King of Bohemia 1346 --- f. Charles University in Prague, Europe's first university -- reign of Charles IV - political & territorial peak -- Charles IV first king of Bohemia to be elected HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR - controlled: -- Moravia -- Siesia -- Upper Lusatia -- Lower Lusatia -- Brandenburg -- region near Nuremberg ('new Bohemia') -- Luxembourg -- small towns in Germany HUSSITE BOHEMIA -- 1415 Jan Hus, rector of Charles University -- religious reformer & thinker -- sentenced to be burnt at stake: heretic -- despite formal protection of Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg -- given opportunity to defend himself re Czech positions in religious court -- executed Jul. 1415 -- w/ emperor approval -- x5 consecutive papal crusades against Hus followers -- Bohemians forced to defend themselves -- rebellion & defence vs. Roman Catholics = Hussite Wars -- uprising against imperial forces led Jan Žižka (former mercenary) leader of Hussite armies -- howitzers, pistols, fortified wagons -- Žižka - great general who never lost a battle -- on death: Propkop the Great takes over as commander -- Hussites victorious another 10 years -- Europe 'terrified' -- Hussites eventually splintered into two factions - Ultraquists (compromise w. Catholic church) - Taborites (radical views) -- Taborites defeated by Ultraquists Battle of Lipany 1434 -- 1458: George of Podebrady - elected to Bohemian throne -- PROTO EUROPEAN UNION: -- attempts to set up a pan-European "Christian League" -- all states of Europe to be formed into 'community based on religion' -- due to deteriorating relationship of Podebrady with Pope -- Podebrady position 'substantially damaged' & negotiations not completed HABSBURG MONARCHY -- 1526: Archduke Ferdinand of Austria new King of Bohemia -- Bohemia constituent state of Habsburg Monarchy -- religious freedom 1453-1620 -- one of most liberal Christian countries that time -- 1609: Prague made capital of Holy Roman Empire -- oppression by Bohemian rulers (Holy Roman Emperor) re Protestant rights -- results in Bohemian Revolt -- which results in outbreak of Thirty Years' War (1618) -- Protestant eventually elected by Bohemian nobility -- ie. Frederick V -- 1620: Frederick V - killed in Battle of White Mountain -- subsequently: -- 27 Bohemian estates leaders -- Jan Jesenius, rector of the Charles University of Prague *executed on the Prague's Old Town Square *1621 and the rest were exiled *their lands were then given to Catholic loyalists (mostly Bavarian & Saxon origins) -- ended pre-reformation movement in Bohemia -- ended Prague as ruling city of Holy Roman Empire -- 1627 - 'new Constitution' - establishes German language as second official lang. of Czech lands -- Czech language spoken as first language -- both German & Latin widely spoken by ruling classes -- German becomes more dominant -- Czech spoken in rural areas CZECH LANGUAGE -- formerly known as Bohemian -- is a West Slavic language -- influenced by Latin -- 1749: official independence blocked by Bohemian Diet -- Diet approved administrative reform & affirmed: ** indivisibility of the Habsburg Empire and the centralization of rule ** meant: merging Bohemian Chancellery w. Austrian Chancellery -- end 1700s: Czech National Revival Movement -- supported by part of Bohemian aristocracy -- campaign for restoration of kingdom historic rights -- ie Czech to replace German as admin lang. -- minor concessions later restricted -- Revolution 1848: Czech nationalists call for autonomy from Habsburg Austria -- revolutionaries defeated -- last vestiges of independence dissolved -- but Czech language rebirth: 'romantic nationalism' among Czechs -- 1861 - new elected Bohemian Diet est. -- renewal of old Bohemian Crown (Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia) official political agenda -- of both Czech liberal politicians + Bohemian aristocracy -- 'state rights program' -- parties representing German minority + -- small part of aristocracy -- loyalty to the centralistic Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue") -- 1866: Austro-Prussian War defeat of Austria -- 1867: Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 --- achieved by Hungarian politicians: creating 'equality' b/w Austria & Hungary portions of empire -- tripartate monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) attempted by Czechs, failed 1871 -- 'state rights program' remained official platform of all Czech political parties to 1918 -- *exception was the social democrats POST WWI -- Bohemia was core of newly formed: CZECHOSLOVAKIA -- combining Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, upper Hungary (now Slovakia) -- + Carpathian Ruthenia, into one state -- Tomáš Masaryk, becomes first president of Czechoslovakia -- Czechoslovakia - liberal democratic republic -- issues arise Czech majority relationship with native German & Hungarian minorities 1938 - Munich Agreement -- Sudetenland (border regions of Bohemia, historically inhabited by ethnic Germans) -- annexed to Third Reich Germany 1939 - Remnants -- remnants of Bohemia & Moravia annexed by Germany 1939 --- Slovak lands became separate Slovak republic -- described as 'puppet state' of Third Reich Germany -- 1939 to 1945 Bohemia -- *formed 'German Protectorate of Bohemia & Moravia): -- minus Sudetenland -- with Moravia -- *opposition to German occupation brutally suppressed by authorities -- *Czech dissenters executed as result -- end WWII 1945 -- vast majority of Germans -- presumably ethnic Germans? -- were expelled by order of Czech central govt -- on basis of Potsdam Agreement -- property of these Germans was confiscated by Czech govt -- result: severe depopulation of area CZECHOSLOVAKIA 1946 - Czechoslovakia Re-Established -- on basis of Potsdam Agreement -- pursuant to stipulation that region (?) be placed under 'Polish administration' -- post WWII, elected Communist party, reportedly backed by Soviet Union -- Re-established Czechoslovakia -- non-communists of govt resign in protest against 'arbitrary measures' re state institutions -- PM of coalition govt Klement Gottwald (communist) -- response = coup d'état -- pro-Soviet authoritarian state installed -- 1949: Bohemia no longer administrative top dog -- Czechoslovakia divided into admin regions -- 1949 to 1989, Czechoslovakia a 'Soviet satellite' -- note: no Soviet army present to 1968 -- 1968, the Communist Party began reforms & 'democratisation' -- "Prague Spring" reforms stopped by Warsaw Pact armies (in Aug 1968) Pope John Paul II - 1989 -- appoints 'Agnes of Bohemia' first saint from Central European country -- 'Velvet Revolution' - later that year -- dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993 -- Bohemia becomes: new Czech Republic -- 1992 Constitution refers to Bohemia, Moravia & Silesia -- & proclaims continued statehood of Bohemian Crown -------/\/\/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz_culture https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazend https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridu http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ebw ---------------------- ---------------------- Sarmatians Iranian ppl (classical antiquity) peak:  5th C BC - 4th C AD spoke Scythian - Eastern Iranian branch Indo-European move westward move 6th C. BC closely related to Scythians came to dominate Scythians by 2nd C. BC differed from Scythians:     -- veneration of god of fire     -- woman prominent role in warfare     -- poss. inspiration for Amazons -- rather than Scythian:  god of nature -- territory known as Sarmatia (to Greco-Romans) -- now mostly modern Ukraine & Southern Russia -- part north-east Balkans, around Moldova -- 1st Century AD -- Sarmatians encroach on Roman Empire in ALLIANCE with Germanic tribes -- domiance of Pontic Steppe broken by Germanic Goths, 3rd Century AD -- during Hunnic invasions 4th C. -- many Sarmatians join Goths & other Germanic tribes (Vandals) -- moving to settle Western Roman Empire -- related peoples:  Alans, survived in North Caucasus to early Middle Ages -- gave rise to Ossetic ethnic group -- indigenous to Ossetia, speak Iranic lang. (+ Russian) -- mostly Eastern Orthodox -- politically divided:     -- North Ossettia-Alania (in Russia)     -- South Ossetia (de facto independent fm Georgia, since 2008 South Ossetia war) -- Ossettians receive name from Russian lang., which adopted Georgian designations -- & used since Middle Ages for Iranian speaking tribes -- prob. based old Alan self-designation 'As' -- terms accepted / lack of single inclusive name for selves & lang. prior to integration into Russian empire -- 1990s Ossetian nationalism dispute b/w subgroups Digoron vs. Iron re dialect of Digoron -- intellectuals then search for new inclusive ethnic name:  'Alania' popularised -- name of medieval Sarmatian confderation that Ossetians descend from Alans -- Sarmatian tribe (Scythian subgroup of Iranian ethno-ling. group) -- 200 AD Alans only branch of Sarmatians to keep culture -- post Gothic (Germanic) invasions -- built kingdom b/w Don & Volga -- 350 and 374 AD Huns destroy Alan kingdom -- but Alans survive in Caucasus  (as Ossetians) Alans Conflicts --  Ossetian-Ingush conflict - 1991–1992 --  Georgian–Ossetian conflicts - 1918, 1920, 1990s --  South Ossetia War 2008 (George / Russia) Key events described as: -- 1774:  Iran Afsharid Dynasty falls apart -- some degre integration of descendants into modern Islamic minorities -- north Ossetia = Russian empire -- 1801:  Treaty of Georgievsk -- ie.  Persia relinquishes control of South Ossetia     *South Ossetia becomes Russian Empire territory     *along with Georgia -- 1922:  Ossetia divided:         1.  North Ossetia (Russian, Soviet Rep.)         2.  South Ossetia (Georgian, Soviet Rep.) -- 1990:  South Ossetia declares independence from Georgia -- Georgia does not recognise -- ethnic tensions:     -- Ossetians vs. Georgians (South Ossetia, in abolished former auto.Oblast)     -- Ossetians vs. Ingush (in North Ossetia, violent clashes)     -- Ingush are Caucasian native ethnic group, however they have adopted Sunni religion     -- Ingush language closely related to Chechen, but *not mutually intelligible*     -- Ingush & Chechen collectively known as:  Vainakh     -- Ingush under Russian rule in 1810     -- accused of collaborating w. Third Reich Germans WWII     -- entire population DEPORTED to Kazakhstan & Kyrgyzstan     -- post Stalin death 1950s, returned home 1957     -- but by that time western Ingush lands ceded to North Ossetia     -- predominantly Sunni muslim       (not sure if from mixing in Kaz. & Kyrg. or Muslim conquest Iran) -- Ossetian divided into:      -- Ironian         - north Ossetia         - south Ossetia     -- Digorian         - western North Ossetia -- also subdialetcts exist -- Ossetian  =  Scytho-Sarmatian diaglect group -- closely related surviving langs:     -- Yaghnobi     -- Pashto     -- Pamiri     *all spoken over 2,000 km away in:         -- east Afghanistan         -- north-western Pakistan         -- some parts of Tajikistan -- Alans christianised by Bizantine missionaries 10th C. Ad -- Ossetians mainly under Eastern Orthodox, 12th-13thC. under infl. Georgia -- Digor in west, eventually came under Kabardian & Islamic influence -- Kabarday = east Circassian tribe -- through Kabarday Muslim religion introduced (17th C.) -- Ossetia under Russian emp. 1774, strengthening Orth. christ. -- Ossetian ethnic religion (ie the Alans / the Samatrian-Scythian, Iranian) -- many ritual traditions -- sacrificing animals -- holy shrines -- non Christian saints -- temples kown as:  kuvadon -- since 1980s, reportedly 'Ætsæg Din' ethnic religion emerging -- 'din' must mean 'religion' (per old Iranian lang. & Avesta reference to script) *** note:  as with other ethnic groups Caucasus      despite Indo-European & Iranic roots      *Ossetians = extensive intermarriage with other ethnic  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetians https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatians [NOTE:  ALL INFO FROM WIKIPEDIA SITE, UNLESS OTHERWISE MARKED /  *SOME WIKIPEDIA URL ENTRIES MAY NOT BE LISTED] COMMENT This was good to check out, but the editing has me really annoyed. Took me forever to do something simple ... grrr. I've edited the same thing about three times so far (something went haywire) and I'm sick of looking at it and tired of checking for typos. Sumerians (above) became dominated by another people that they formed an alliance with, and they got absorbed.   They no longer exist and their unique language, in a branch of its own, is dead. As for Iran, I think it's a shame that the ancient Iranian culture & religion was largely wiped out by what amounts to Saudi Arabian conquest. The ancient Iranian religion and culture seems far more interesting to me. I don't understand why peoples that are conquered and converted by those that conquered them stay converted when they finally achieve independence. I'd be throwing off what is foreign and returning to historic culture.  On the other hand, seeking independence has its draw-backs:  it is cause for ongoing conflicts and splintering of regions. It looks like what became known as the Muslim contribution to art, architecture etc, was actually appropriated and spread from Iran (Persia) by what must be the conquering Saudis (or their slave armies)?