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MINISTRY OF TOKYO
US-ANGLO CAPITALISMEU-NATO IMPERIALISM
Illegitimate Transfer of Inalienable European Rights via Convention(s) & Supranational Bodies
Establishment of Sovereignty-Usurping Supranational Body Dictatorships
Enduring Program of DEMOGRAPHICS WAR on Europeans
Enduring Program of PSYCHOLOGICAL WAR on Europeans
Enduring Program of European Displacement, Dismemberment, Dispossession, & Dissolution
No wars or conditions abroad (& no domestic or global economic pretexts) justify government policy facilitating the invasion of ancestral European homelands, the rape of European women, the destruction of European societies, & the genocide of Europeans.
U.S. RULING OLIGARCHY WAGES HYBRID WAR TO SALVAGE HEGEMONY
[LINK | Article]

*U.S. OLIGARCHY WAGES HYBRID WAR* | U.S. Empire's Casino Unsustainable | Destabilised U.S. Monetary & Financial System | U.S. Defaults Twice A Year | Causes for Global Financial Crisis of 2008 Remain | Financial Pyramids Composed of Derivatives & National Debt Are Growing | *U.S. OLIGARCHY WAGES HYBRID WAR* | U.S. Empire's Casino Unsustainable | Destabilised U.S. Monetary & Financial System | U.S. Defaults Twice A Year | Causes for Global Financial Crisis of 2008 Remain | Financial Pyramids Composed of Derivatives & National Debt Are Growing | *U.S. OLIGARCHY WAGES HYBRID WAR*

Who's preaching world democracy, democracy, democracy? —Who wants to make free people free?
[info from Craig Murray video appearance, follows]  US-Anglo Alliance DELIBERATELY STOKING ANTI-RUSSIAN FEELING & RAMPING UP TENSION BETWEEN EASTERN EUROPE & RUSSIA.  British military/government feeding media PROPAGANDA.  Media choosing to PUBLISH government PROPAGANDA.  US naval aggression against Russia:  Baltic Sea — US naval aggression against China:  South China Sea.  Continued NATO pressure on Russia:  US missile systems moving into Eastern Europe.     [info from John Pilger interview follows]  War Hawk:  Hillary Clinton — embodiment of seamless aggressive American imperialist post-WWII system.  USA in frenzy of preparation for a conflict.  Greatest US-led build-up of forces since WWII gathered in Eastern Europe and in Baltic states.  US expansion & military preparation HAS NOT BEEN REPORTED IN THE WEST.  Since US paid for & controlled US coup, UKRAINE has become an American preserve and CIA Theme Park, on Russia's borderland, through which Germans invaded in the 1940s, costing 27 million Russian lives.  Imagine equivalent occurring on US borders in Canada or Mexico.  US military preparations against RUSSIA and against CHINA have NOT been reported by MEDIA.  US has sent guided missile ships to diputed zone in South China Sea.  DANGER OF US PRE-EMPTIVE NUCLEAR STRIKES.  China is on HIGH NUCLEAR ALERT.  US spy plane intercepted by Chinese fighter jets.  Public is primed to accept so-called 'aggressive' moves by China, when these are in fact defensive moves:  US 400 major bases encircling China; Okinawa has 32 American military installations; Japan has 130 American military bases in all.  WARNING PENTAGON MILITARY THINKING DOMINATES WASHINGTON. ⟴  
Showing posts with label Uppsala. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Uppsala. Show all posts

January 20, 2016

Uppsala - Main Norse Pagan Centre of Sweden ... & Beyond


Uppsala
fourth-largest city Sweden
after: Stockholm, Gothenburg & Malmö

formerly 'Upsala'
originally located a few km north of current location
at Gamla Uppsala (old Uppsala)


'Up' translates to 'Up'
'Sal' translates to 'Hall'
[messing with translation tool / not necessarily spot-on]

Centre of Norse
(native pagan)
worship
not only for Sweden
for all Scandinavia

"Even after Christianity had spread through Sweden, heathen sacrifices were still maintained at Upsala."


Uppsala
main pagan centre of Sweden

Temple at Uppsala
contained idols of Norse gods

Temple described in:

1. Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
[Latin:  Hamburg church bishops events
or Deeds of the Bishops of Hamburg]

(Adamus Bremensis, 11th Century)

Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
[pl. pontificum from:  pontifex] (here)

pontifex

1.  = high priest, state minister in ancient Rome
2.  = pontiff or bishop of early Christian church / now Pope

Deeds Hamburg Church Bishops
Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum

2. Heimskringla (Snori Sturluson, 13th Century) 

Adamus Bremensis
Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (not entirely reliable) account follows:

Ubsola
refers to temple:  Ubsola, near Sigtuna
temple adorned with gold
worship of gods seated at triple throne:
  1. Thor (central throne) - holds mace - cf. Jupiter
  2. Wodan (Odin) - armor-clad - cf. Mars
  3. Fricco (Freyr) - immense erect penis


 ****
Replica Freyr 
bronze-figure
found at farm Rällinge
in Lunda parish, Södermanland, Sweden

Norse Peoples
worshipped

gods who were once men
believed to be immortal
because of their heroic acts

Each of the gods had a priest appointed to them, who offered sacrifices to the gods from the people.

Communal Festival
 Every 9 years
communal festival of every province in Sweden
was held in Ubsola

converts to Christianity had to make a payment in lieu of attendance

Sacrifice

9 males of every living creature
blood sacrifice to placate the gods
corpses of the nine males are hung within grove beside temple

Grove

grove considered extremely sacred
each singular tree "is considered to be divine"
due to the death of those sacrificed

rotting corpses hanging
dogs and horses hang within
grove among corpses of men

reportedly x72 cadavers of differing species seen hanging at grove

according to Adamus Bremensis, many & 'disgusting' songs sung during sacrificial rites

[note:  Adamus was big on converting the north to Christianity, so he is not exactly impartial.]

near the temple stands a massive evergreen tree with far-spreading branches

tree is also where spring sacrifices are held

live man thrown into spring, if he fails to return to surface:
'wish of the people will be fulfilled'.

golden chain surrounds temple
golden chain hangs from the gables of the temple
golden chain is visible from distance to those approaching temple
landscape surrounded by hills, like amphitheatre

feasts & sacrifices continue for 9 days

spring equinox:
each day a man is sacrificed with two animals
total sacrifices:  x27

Rudolf Simek
Professor German Studies
University of Bonn
re:  Bremen account of temple, sources varying re reliability

Bremen account potentially influenced
by description of Solomon's Temple in Old Testament

but existence of a temple at Uppsala is undisputed

similar chains as described by Bremen
appear on some European churches dating from 8th to 9th centuries

site of 11th-century temple
probably adjoined choir of the church standing there today

*choir:  "part of a church used by ... company of singers." [TFD]


Orchard (1997)

Thietmar of Merseburg
produced a considerably less detailed
but similar account of sacrifices held in Lejre, Denmark
earlier in the 11th century [here]

Thietmar of Merseburg
b. 975 AD - d. 1018 AD
son of the Saxon count

Prince-Bishop of Merseburg (1009  - death 1018)
chronicler recording reigns of German kings
& Holy Roman Emperors of Ottonian (Saxon) dynasty
[wikipedia]

Norse Temple
Desecrated by Christian Cathedral

Price and Alkarp radar / geophysical examination:

remains of wooden construction
located directly under northern transept
of the medieval cathedral (arms of cross shape)

two other buildings:
  1. one of them a Bronze Age building
  2. other possibly a Viking Age feasting hall
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_at_Uppsala


Kungshögarna
högarna = 'piles' (mounds)

Royal mounds - x3 large barrows
in Gamla (Old) Uppsala

Mounds - Sweden's oldest national symbols

" ... remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf."excavated:

  • "bronze panels with a dancing warrior carrying a spear"
  • "probably adorned a helmet of the Vendel Age" - ie 550-790 (between Migration Period & Viking Age)
  • "gold which probably had adorned a scramasax" [Anglo-Saxon single-edged knife]... or, according to other theory, were part of belt

    'Valhalla'
    (fm Old Norse Valhöll "hall of the slain")
     The dead burned to hasten passage to Valhalla & given:

    • several glass beakers;
    • a tafl game (Germanic & Celtic strategy board games);
    • a comb; and
    • a hone. 
    Tafl
    Versions of Tafl
    • Hnefatafl
    • Alea Evangelii
    • Tawlbwrdd (Wales)
    • Brandubh
    • Ard Ri
    • Tablut
    played across Northern Europe
    prior 400 B.C.
    to 12th Century
    12th C. Tafl supplanted by chess
    Sweden 
    officially Christianised by 12th Century
        Hone
        -- fine grained whetstone  |  aka snakestone
        -- for sharpening tools, blades, knives etc


        Old Norse Valhöll. Valr, the slain in battle
        hall of Odin into which the souls of those fallen in battle are received
        [source]

        Old Norse Valhǫll=val(r) the slain in battle, slaughter (c. Old English wæl) + hǫll hall] [ibid]

        Viking Chief 
        presence in battle was vital
        Essential for a Viking chief
        to be considered an equal in war
        [source:  Tafl Games, Wikipedia]
        *equal in war system sounds good to me
        *we should go back to this

        Western Mound
        • animal sacrifices (for journey to Valhalla)
        • remains of   warrior   accoutrements

        luxurious weapons & other objects, domestic & imported, incl:

        • Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets
        • board game with Roman pawns of ivory
        • dressed suit of Frankish cloth with golden threads
        • belt with elaborate buckle
        • x4 cameos (engraved object) fm. Middle East - possibly part of a casket
        http://www.spottinghistory.com/view/767/the-royal-mounds/


        Royal Mounds of Gamla Uppsala,
        Ancient Pagan Site of Sweden

        " ... excavations proved that the mounds were man-made, and contained human burials, though the identities of those buried in the mounds have never been firmly established."

        Pattern of cremation & re-interment:  East & West mounds.

        "East Mound, the excavators discovered a burial urn filled with burnt bone that was covered by a stone cairn."

        ""According to the Ynglinga Saga [legendary saga, written in Old Norse by Icelandic poet/historian Snorri Sturluson c. 1225] , this mortuary practice was established by Odin himself: “Thus he (Odin) established by law that all dead men should be burned, and their belongings laid with them upon the pile, and the ashes be cast into the sea or buried in the earth.”" [here]


        Sigtuna
        founded 1,000 years ago
        on then shore of Lake Mälaren

        name from:   ancient royal estate (see Uppsala öd)
        [Uppsala öd roughly:  'Uppsala domains' or 'wealth']

        Uppsala öd - collection of medieval royal estates
        to finance Swedish king & his retinue (probably noble supporters)

        estate of this kind in most 'hundreds'
        'hundred' = county division
        aka 'harad' or 'hundare'
        other language terms:
        herred (Danish), herad (Norwegin), harde (German)
        kihlakunta (Finnish)
        Kihelkond (Estonian)

        ie area liable to provide 100 armed men
        or area containing roughly 100 homesteads

        similar administrative systems used:  China & Japan
        England & Wales
        'hundred' = division of shire for military & judicial purposes under common law (subject to varying degree of feudal ownership or rights)

        'hundred' first recorded in laws of King Edmund I (939-46)
        Edmund the Elder / Edmund the Just
        half-brother:  Æthelstan (predeceased Edmund who succeeded him)

        Æthelstan
        victim of a political assassination

        father:  Edward the Elder, English king
        king of the Anglo-Saxons

        sister: Eadgyth, the wife of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor

        One royal estate in each 'hundred' was called 'Husaby'

        'Husaby' consisted of large centrally located farm
        originally property of local strongmen
        who were defeated by the Swedish kings
        Husaby became home of king's tax collector
        inhabitants of the 'hundred' delivered goods as taxes

        13th century:  more efficient administration rendered 'Husaby' obsolete.

        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husby_%28estate%29


        IMAGE - Husaby Church
        Church belonged to network
        of royal estates:  'Uppsala öd'
        tower built late 11th C.
        stone church built 12th C.
        Steep walls, high towards
        'arguably only Romanesque architecture' in Sweden
        Romanesque = medieval European / first pan-European architecture since Roman arch.  / Britain:  referred to as 'Norman'
        *developed into Gothic in 12th C. (pointed arches)

        Romanesque architecture
        (aka Norman)
        no beginning consensus
        proposed:  6th C. to late 10th C.
        combines features ancient Roman, Byzantine & local traditions
        thick walls, rounded arches,sturdy pillars, groin vaults (double-barrel vaults), large towards, decorative arching (cascade of arches)

        examples:  abbey churches

        many castles built this period
        but are greatly OUTNUMBERED by churches

        prosperous areas later
        rebuilt Romanesque churches in fussy Gothic style
        eg. England & Portugal
        poorer regions:  south of France, Spain & rural Italy
        provide most surviving Romanesque churches

        Unfortified Romanesque secular homes & palaces more rare
        domestic quarters of monasteries even more rare

        *I like the St Nicholas Rotunda in Cieszyn Poland, not so much into the other examples.

        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture


        800 AD - Christmas Day
        Charlmagne crowned Emperor
        of the Holy Roman Empire
        in Old St Peter's Basilica
        in spot of:  new St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City
        built over:  Circus of Nero
        construction began orders Emp. Constantine 1
        318-322 AD
        30 years to completion
        became major place of pilgrimage in Rome
        over next 12 centuries

        846 AD - Arab raid against Rome
        'Saracens' sacked & damaged basilica
        'Saracen' - Aghlabid dynasty
        Sunni Muslim, ruled 'Ifriqiya'
        {located:  Tunisia (now), Tripolitania (western Libya) & Constantinois (Algeria)
        areas previously:   African Province of Roman Empire

        Arabs deterred from Ponza capture
        by combined fleet from Naples & Gaeta
        but later that year took:  Messina, Sicily
        Arab mercenaries hired to fight in Campania
        {by Benevento & Salerno figures at civil war}

        Arabs struck: Porto and Ostia in 846
        Roman militia retreat behind walls
        Basilicas outside Aurelian walls
        (St Peter & St Paul)
        vast riches easy Arab targets
        historians:  raiders knew exactly to find most valuable treasures

        Saracen Arab Raid against Rome echoed in:
        chanson de geste
        (song of heroic deeds)
        medieval French epic poen

        at dawn of French literature
        11th & early 12th Centuries
        {before the romantics / troubadours}
        *originally sung, later recited
        *survived in 300 manuscripts

        Arabs sacked other churches
        • plundered outskirts of city
        • prevented from entering the city heart by Aurelian Wall
        Aurelian Walls ('Mura aureliane')
        built between:  271 AD - 275 AD
        Reigns of:
        • Emperor Aurelian
        • Emperor Proubus

        Aurelian Walls enclosed all seven hills of Rome
        + Campus Martius (field of Mars, aka Campo Marzio)

        Campus Martius
        publicly owned area ancient Rome, 2km square
        most populous area Rome by Middle Ages

        Campus Maritus possibly named after
        Ara Martis ('Mars' altar'),
        c. 8th Century BC
        / location of altar unknown
        / destruction of altar unknown

        mid-6th Century BC - 324 BC (early Republic)
        four (4) temples built
        Temple of Diana - 6th C. - no remains
        Temple of Castor & Pollux - 495 BC
        Temple of Apollo Sosianus - 431 BC
        Temple of Juno Regina - 392 BC

        324 BC - death Alexander Great
        thereafter Hellenism sweeps Rome
        seven (7) temples built Campus Martius
        • Temple Bellona - Goddess of War
        • Temple fortuna - Goddess of fortune, personification luck / wheel of fortune
          paired with: Mater Matuta, indigenous Latin mother goddess
        • Temple Juturna - Goddess fountains, wells, springs
        • Temple Hercules - equiv. Jupiter (Gk. Heracles)
        • Temple Vulcan - god of fire, metal working
        • Temple Fortuna Equestris - Fortuna again, 'Equestrian Luck'
        • + one (1) uncertain

        former Roman religious places:
        • Capitoline Hill
        • Forum Romanum

        later, temples & religious activity spread
        from here across Rome

        temples of misc. gods absorbed into Roman culture

        LINK | IMAGE model Rome 300 AD
        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus_Martius#/media/File:Campus_Martius.jpg

        Temple of Bellona (Rome)
        vowed in 296 BC
        during 3rd Samnite War (Italic)

        Bellona
        ancient Roman goddess of war
        sister of Mars
        Temple at Campus Maritus
        site of meetings with foreign ambassadors
        festival of Bellona:  3 June

        Priests of Bellona
        known as 'Bellonarii'

        priests self-wounding when making sacrifices (early)
        March 24 - day of blood (dies sanginis), only symbolic (later)

        Source | here
        Bellona - Wears helmet, carries spear & torch.  [source]
        Latin:  Bellum, Belli - 'War'  [here]

        Celtic Goddess of War - Badb
        sounds coolest:

        Celtic Trinity of War Goddesses:
        • Badb
        • Morrigan
        • Macha - (Crow) or Nemain (Frenzy) - feeds on the heads of slain enemies

        Badb
        -- sometimes raven / magic to confuse warriors in battle
        -- fought battles
        -- battlefield called 'land of Badb'  [here]

        when Badb assumes form of raven or crow
        known as:  Badb Catha 'battle raven'

        Morrigan - 'Great Queen' or 'phantom Queen'
        Celtic goddess of war, battles, death, strife & fertility
        appears singularly or in trio of goddesses
        if seen by warrior before battle, warrior will die

        [Celtic deities - here]

        Columna Bellica

        "small column standing in an open area beside the temple of Bellona"  LINK | Source


        used in Roman ceremony
        for DECLARING WAR
        spear hurled from Roman territory towards enemy territory

        short column near Forum
        from which consul proclaimed war
        by hurling spear into surrounding field
        towards enemy's country
        [book:  Cyril M. Harris - Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture - (2013)]

        later, where territory did not border Rome
        "[prisoner of war] soldier of Pyrrhus had been forced to buy this spot of ground [in Campus Martius] in order that it might represent foreign soil, and the column represented a boundary stone over which the fetial (priest) cast his spear when war was to be declared in due form against a foreign foe"  LINK | Source

        fetial (L. pl. fetiales) - type of priest of Ancient Rome
        collegium (equally empowered members) devoted to Jupiter
        advised senate on foreign affairs, international treaties
        made formal proclamations of war & peace
        confirmed treaties
        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetial

        Pater - father  |  patratus - accomplished

        Pater Patratus - Accomplished Father

        [ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/patratus ]

        Injury by State | Diplomacy

        In event of injury to Rome by another state:

        four (4) fetials
        sent to seek redress for injury by anor. state

        Fetial - any of body of 20 Roman priestly officials

        concerns: international relations, treaties, declarations of war

        originally selected from most noble families

        served for life

        only submitted advice:  advice not binding on decisions

        Livny's book 1, history of Rome:

        when Rome injured by another state, four (4) fetials sent to seek redress - incl:

        1. verbenarius - carried herbs gathers from Arx on Capitoline Hill

        2. pater patratus - group's representative

        on reaching offending state
        prater patratus announced mission & addressed prayer to Jupiter
        affirmed the justness of his errand
        Crossing the border, he repeated the same form several times

        30 (or 33 days, by some sources), if no remedy given

        pater patratus harshly denounced offending state
        returned to Rome
        reported to Senate
        if war decided
        prater patratus returned to border
        pronounced declaration of war & hurled over boundary:
        • 1.  regular spear; or
        • 2.  special stake sharpened & hardened in fire.
        ritual to keep Rome from waging unjust or aggressive war

        Where enemy state was distant, spear would be cast upon a piece of land in front of Temple of Bellona in Rome
        land was treated as belonging to the enemy

        *ritual limitations overcome by legal fictions & state entered into wars to its advantage

        Treaties
        verbenarius & pater patratus sent to other nation
        treaty read aloud
        curse pronounced on Rome should the state be first to break treaty
        ceremony concluded by killing pig with flint tool
        by late republic this had faded
        but Emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14AD) revived priestly group
        & became member also
        http://www.britannica.com/topic/fetial#ref6591

        Change in ritual to ancient Roman declaration of war due to war with Greek Pyrrhus (non-adjoining territory):
        Pyrrhus of Epirus, Greek tribe Molossians
        (wins w/ heavy losses:  Pyrrhic victory)
        Pyrrhic War 280-275) - Greeks, Italians & Carthaginians (ie Phoenicians, North Africa)
        Pyrrhus considered one of greatest military commanders of time
        Hannibal ranked him greatest commander world had seen
        second to Alexander the Great
        Pyrrhus entered Italy 280BC
        • 3,000 cavalry
        • 2,000 archers
        • 500 slingers
        • 20,000 infantry
        • 20 war elephants (loaned by Ptolemy II)
        series of wars
        ending w/ Romans 6,000 dead / Pyrrhus 3,500 dead
        Rome lost
        Pyrrhus headed for Sicily
        lifts Carthaginian siege of Syracuse
        proclaimed king of Sicily
        designs on Italy
        Lilybaeum (Marsala, Western Sicily) military target
        manpower and money from the Sicilians required
        Sicilians not happy
        military dictatorship enforced
        alienated Sicilian Greeks
        while engaged with Carthaginians
        Romans rebuilt army
        on Pyrrhus return Sicily
        Pyrrhus vastly outnumbered /withdraws after inconclusive battle of 275 BC
        Pyrrhus Italian campaign was only chance for Greeks to stop
        what became advance of Rome towards domination of Mediterranean

        Punic Wars followed this period:

        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus

        Punic Wars (x3)
        Rome vs Carthage - 264 - 146BC
        LARGEST wars that had ever taken place
        'Punic' fm. L. Punicus (or Poenicus) - ie Carthaginian (Phoenician ancestry)

        cause:  Rome sought to expand into existing Carthaginian Empire domain

        Romans wanted Sicily (part of which Carthaginian control)

        mid-200s BC - Carthage located modern Tunisia
        powerful, sea-merchant city-state, vast commercial network
        only Rome rivalled it in power, wealth & population
        Carthage navy largest in ancient world then
        but Carthage did not maintain a large, permanent standing army
        relied mostly on mercenaries (Numidians - ancient Berber, now Algeria)

        Carthaginian navy provided their lower classes w/ stable income & career

        Rome, unlike Carthage, had large disciplined armed forces
        Rome had no navy at start First Punic War
        Rome constructed own fleet during FPW

        Rome first defeated due to Carthage advantage at sea
        but:

        1. ROME DRASTICALLY EXPANDED NAVY IN SHORT TIME
        IN 2 MONTHS ROMAN FLEET HAD OVER 100 WARSHIPS

        2.  INNOVATION:  CORVUS (assault bridge) added to Roman ships
        hinged bridge to swing into enemy vessels with sharp spike & stop vessels
        Roman legionaries board & capture Carthaginian ships

        *Corvus = ravens /  crows

        Tactic reduced Carthaginian advantage re ship-to-ship battles
        Romans superior infantry prevail in naval conflicts

        Romans suffer disasterous intial defeat:  Battle of Tuins
        + x2 naval engagements
        otherwise:  First Punic War
        almost unbroken string of Roman victories

        241 BC - Carthage signs peace treaty, evacuating Sicily & paying Rome large war indemnity
        Carthage plunged into Mercenary War (Rome then seized Sardinia & Corsica)
        Rome then ascends to power in Western Mediterranean

        more on Punic Wars
        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic_Wars

        Mercenary War (240–238 BC)
        revolt supported by Libya natives
        re non-payment of mercenary troops
        under Carthage re Sicily vs Rome
        Carthage liquidity problem:  Egypt (mutual Rome & Carthage ally) Egypt no liquidity help

        Husaby, near Kinnekulle
        Västergötland, Sweden

        https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Husaby_kyrka_ext_2005-08-10.jpg

        Sweden 13th Century
        King's subjects begin to pay monetary taxes
        therefore royal estates financing obsolete
        royal estates then passed to nobility & church

        Individual royal estates enumerated in:

        1.  Law of Hälsingland (older)
        2.  Westrogothic law (newer)

        Uppsala öd =  first foundation of Swedish state property

        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_%C3%B6d


        ---------------------- ꕤ ----------------------

        Comment

        From this historical perspective, the modern-day invasion of Europe feels sacrilegious.