Uppsala - Main Norse Pagan Centre of Sweden ... & Beyond

ꕤ Uppsala fourth-largest city Sweden after: Stockholm, Gothenburg & Malmö formerly 'Upsala' originally located a few km north of current location at Gamla Uppsala (old Uppsala) 'Up' translates to 'Up' 'Sal' translates to 'Hall' [messing with translation tool / not necessarily spot-on] Centre of Norse (native pagan) worship not only for Sweden for all Scandinavia "Even after Christianity had spread through Sweden, heathen sacrifices were still maintained at Upsala." http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15207a.htm Uppsala main pagan centre of Sweden Temple at Uppsala contained idols of Norse gods Temple described in: 1. Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum [Latin:  Hamburg church bishops events or Deeds of the Bishops of Hamburg] (Adamus Bremensis, 11th Century) Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum [pl. pontificum from:  pontifex] (here) pontifex 1.  = high priest, state minister in ancient Rome 2.  = pontiff or bishop of early Christian church / now Pope Deeds Hamburg Church Bishops Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum 2. Heimskringla (Snori Sturluson, 13th Century)  Adamus Bremensis Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (not entirely reliable) account follows: Ubsola refers to temple:  Ubsola, near Sigtuna temple adorned with gold worship of gods seated at triple throne: Thor (central throne) - holds mace - cf. Jupiter Wodan (Odin) - armor-clad - cf. Mars Fricco (Freyr) - immense erect penis  **** Replica Freyr  bronze-figure found at farm Rällinge in Lunda parish, Södermanland, Sweden Norse Peoples worshipped gods who were once men believed to be immortal because of their heroic acts Each of the gods had a priest appointed to them, who offered sacrifices to the gods from the people. Communal Festival  Every 9 years communal festival of every province in Sweden was held in Ubsola converts to Christianity had to make a payment in lieu of attendance Sacrifice 9 males of every living creature blood sacrifice to placate the gods corpses of the nine males are hung within grove beside temple Grove grove considered extremely sacred each singular tree "is considered to be divine" due to the death of those sacrificed rotting corpses hanging dogs and horses hang within grove among corpses of men reportedly x72 cadavers of differing species seen hanging at grove according to Adamus Bremensis, many & 'disgusting' songs sung during sacrificial rites [note:  Adamus was big on converting the north to Christianity, so he is not exactly impartial.] near the temple stands a massive evergreen tree with far-spreading branches tree is also where spring sacrifices are held live man thrown into spring, if he fails to return to surface: 'wish of the people will be fulfilled'. golden chain surrounds temple golden chain hangs from the gables of the temple golden chain is visible from distance to those approaching temple landscape surrounded by hills, like amphitheatre feasts & sacrifices continue for 9 days spring equinox: each day a man is sacrificed with two animals total sacrifices:  x27 Rudolf Simek Professor German Studies University of Bonn re:  Bremen account of temple, sources varying re reliability Bremen account potentially influenced by description of Solomon's Temple in Old Testament but existence of a temple at Uppsala is undisputed similar chains as described by Bremen appear on some European churches dating from 8th to 9th centuries site of 11th-century temple probably adjoined choir of the church standing there today *choir:  "part of a church used by ... company of singers." [TFD] Orchard (1997) Thietmar of Merseburg produced a considerably less detailed but similar account of sacrifices held in Lejre, Denmark earlier in the 11th century [here] Thietmar of Merseburg b. 975 AD - d. 1018 AD son of the Saxon count Prince-Bishop of Merseburg (1009  - death 1018) chronicler recording reigns of German kings & Holy Roman Emperors of Ottonian (Saxon) dynasty [wikipedia] Norse Temple Desecrated by Christian Cathedral Price and Alkarp radar / geophysical examination: remains of wooden construction located directly under northern transept of the medieval cathedral (arms of cross shape) two other buildings: one of them a Bronze Age building other possibly a Viking Age feasting hall https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_at_Uppsala Kungshögarna högarna = 'piles' (mounds) Royal mounds - x3 large barrows in Gamla (Old) Uppsala Mounds - Sweden's oldest national symbols " ... remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf."excavated: "bronze panels with a dancing warrior carrying a spear" "probably adorned a helmet of the Vendel Age" - ie 550-790 (between Migration Period & Viking Age) "gold which probably had adorned a scramasax" [Anglo-Saxon single-edged knife]... or, according to other theory, were part of belt 'Valhalla' (fm Old Norse Valhöll "hall of the slain")  The dead burned to hasten passage to Valhalla & given: several glass beakers; a tafl game (Germanic & Celtic strategy board games); a comb; and a hone.  Tafl Versions of Tafl Hnefatafl Alea Evangelii Tawlbwrdd (Wales) Brandubh Ard Ri Tablut played across Northern Europe prior 400 B.C. to 12th Century 12th C. Tafl supplanted by chess Sweden  officially Christianised by 12th Century Hone -- fine grained whetstone  |  aka snakestone -- for sharpening tools, blades, knives etc Old Norse Valhöll. Valr, the slain in battle hall of Odin into which the souls of those fallen in battle are received [source] Old Norse Valhǫll=val(r) the slain in battle, slaughter (c. Old English wæl) + hǫll hall] [ibid] Viking Chief  presence in battle was vital Essential for a Viking chief to be considered an equal in war [source:  Tafl Games, Wikipedia] *equal in war system sounds good to me *we should go back to this Western Mound animal sacrifices (for journey to Valhalla) remains of   warrior   accoutrements luxurious weapons & other objects, domestic & imported, incl: Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets board game with Roman pawns of ivory dressed suit of Frankish cloth with golden threads belt with elaborate buckle x4 cameos (engraved object) fm. Middle East - possibly part of a casket http://www.spottinghistory.com/view/767/the-royal-mounds/ Royal Mounds of Gamla Uppsala, Ancient Pagan Site of Sweden " ... excavations proved that the mounds were man-made, and contained human burials, though the identities of those buried in the mounds have never been firmly established." Pattern of cremation & re-interment:  East & West mounds. "East Mound, the excavators discovered a burial urn filled with burnt bone that was covered by a stone cairn." ""According to the Ynglinga Saga [legendary saga, written in Old Norse by Icelandic poet/historian Snorri Sturluson c. 1225] , this mortuary practice was established by Odin himself: “Thus he (Odin) established by law that all dead men should be burned, and their belongings laid with them upon the pile, and the ashes be cast into the sea or buried in the earth.”" [here] Sigtuna founded 1,000 years ago on then shore of Lake Mälaren name from:   ancient royal estate (see Uppsala öd) [Uppsala öd roughly:  'Uppsala domains' or 'wealth'] Uppsala öd - collection of medieval royal estates to finance Swedish king & his retinue (probably noble supporters) estate of this kind in most 'hundreds' 'hundred' = county division aka 'harad' or 'hundare' other language terms: herred (Danish), herad (Norwegin), harde (German) kihlakunta (Finnish) Kihelkond (Estonian) ie area liable to provide 100 armed men or area containing roughly 100 homesteads similar administrative systems used:  China & Japan England & Wales 'hundred' = division of shire for military & judicial purposes under common law (subject to varying degree of feudal ownership or rights) 'hundred' first recorded in laws of King Edmund I (939-46) Edmund the Elder / Edmund the Just half-brother:  Æthelstan (predeceased Edmund who succeeded him) Æthelstan victim of a political assassination father:  Edward the Elder, English king king of the Anglo-Saxons sister: Eadgyth, the wife of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor One royal estate in each 'hundred' was called 'Husaby' 'Husaby' consisted of large centrally located farm originally property of local strongmen who were defeated by the Swedish kings Husaby became home of king's tax collector inhabitants of the 'hundred' delivered goods as taxes 13th century:  more efficient administration rendered 'Husaby' obsolete. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husby_%28estate%29 IMAGE - Husaby Church Church belonged to network of royal estates:  'Uppsala öd' tower built late 11th C. stone church built 12th C. Steep walls, high towards 'arguably only Romanesque architecture' in Sweden Romanesque = medieval European / first pan-European architecture since Roman arch.  / Britain:  referred to as 'Norman' *developed into Gothic in 12th C. (pointed arches) Romanesque architecture (aka Norman) no beginning consensus proposed:  6th C. to late 10th C. combines features ancient Roman, Byzantine & local traditions thick walls, rounded arches,sturdy pillars, groin vaults (double-barrel vaults), large towards, decorative arching (cascade of arches) examples:  abbey churches many castles built this period but are greatly OUTNUMBERED by churches prosperous areas later rebuilt Romanesque churches in fussy Gothic style eg. England & Portugal poorer regions:  south of France, Spain & rural Italy provide most surviving Romanesque churches Unfortified Romanesque secular homes & palaces more rare domestic quarters of monasteries even more rare *I like the St Nicholas Rotunda in Cieszyn Poland, not so much into the other examples. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture 800 AD - Christmas Day Charlmagne crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in Old St Peter's Basilica in spot of:  new St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City built over:  Circus of Nero construction began orders Emp. Constantine 1 318-322 AD 30 years to completion became major place of pilgrimage in Rome over next 12 centuries 846 AD - Arab raid against Rome 'Saracens' sacked & damaged basilica 'Saracen' - Aghlabid dynasty Sunni Muslim, ruled 'Ifriqiya' {located:  Tunisia (now), Tripolitania (western Libya) & Constantinois (Algeria) areas previously:   African Province of Roman Empire Arabs deterred from Ponza capture by combined fleet from Naples & Gaeta but later that year took:  Messina, Sicily Arab mercenaries hired to fight in Campania {by Benevento & Salerno figures at civil war} Arabs struck: Porto and Ostia in 846 Roman militia retreat behind walls Basilicas outside Aurelian walls (St Peter & St Paul) vast riches easy Arab targets historians:  raiders knew exactly to find most valuable treasures Saracen Arab Raid against Rome echoed in: chanson de geste (song of heroic deeds) medieval French epic poen at dawn of French literature 11th & early 12th Centuries {before the romantics / troubadours} *originally sung, later recited *survived in 300 manuscripts Arabs sacked other churches plundered outskirts of city prevented from entering the city heart by Aurelian Wall Aurelian Walls ('Mura aureliane') built between:  271 AD - 275 AD Reigns of: Emperor Aurelian Emperor Proubus Aurelian Walls enclosed all seven hills of Rome + Campus Martius (field of Mars, aka Campo Marzio) Campus Martius publicly owned area ancient Rome, 2km square most populous area Rome by Middle Ages Campus Maritus possibly named after Ara Martis ('Mars' altar'), c. 8th Century BC / location of altar unknown / destruction of altar unknown mid-6th Century BC - 324 BC (early Republic) four (4) temples built Temple of Diana - 6th C. - no remains Temple of Castor & Pollux - 495 BC Temple of Apollo Sosianus - 431 BC Temple of Juno Regina - 392 BC 324 BC - death Alexander Great thereafter Hellenism sweeps Rome seven (7) temples built Campus Martius Temple Bellona - Goddess of War Temple fortuna - Goddess of fortune, personification luck / wheel of fortune paired with: Mater Matuta, indigenous Latin mother goddess Temple Juturna - Goddess fountains, wells, springs Temple Hercules - equiv. Jupiter (Gk. Heracles) Temple Vulcan - god of fire, metal working Temple Fortuna Equestris - Fortuna again, 'Equestrian Luck' + one (1) uncertain former Roman religious places: Capitoline Hill Forum Romanum later, temples & religious activity spread from here across Rome temples of misc. gods absorbed into Roman culture LINK | IMAGE model Rome 300 AD https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus_Martius#/media/File:Campus_Martius.jpg Temple of Bellona (Rome) vowed in 296 BC during 3rd Samnite War (Italic) Bellona ancient Roman goddess of war sister of Mars Temple at Campus Maritus site of meetings with foreign ambassadors festival of Bellona:  3 June Priests of Bellona known as 'Bellonarii' priests self-wounding when making sacrifices (early) March 24 - day of blood (dies sanginis), only symbolic (later) Source | here Bellona - Wears helmet, carries spear & torch.  [source] Latin:  Bellum, Belli - 'War'  [here] Celtic Goddess of War - Badb sounds coolest: Celtic Trinity of War Goddesses: Badb Morrigan Macha - (Crow) or Nemain (Frenzy) - feeds on the heads of slain enemies Badb -- sometimes raven / magic to confuse warriors in battle -- fought battles -- battlefield called 'land of Badb'  [here] when Badb assumes form of raven or crow known as:  Badb Catha 'battle raven' Morrigan - 'Great Queen' or 'phantom Queen' Celtic goddess of war, battles, death, strife & fertility appears singularly or in trio of goddesses if seen by warrior before battle, warrior will die [Celtic deities - here] Columna Bellica "small column standing in an open area beside the temple of Bellona"  LINK | Source used in Roman ceremony for DECLARING WAR spear hurled from Roman territory towards enemy territory short column near Forum from which consul proclaimed war by hurling spear into surrounding field towards enemy's country [book:  Cyril M. Harris - Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture - (2013)] later, where territory did not border Rome "[prisoner of war] soldier of Pyrrhus had been forced to buy this spot of ground [in Campus Martius] in order that it might represent foreign soil, and the column represented a boundary stone over which the fetial (priest) cast his spear when war was to be declared in due form against a foreign foe"  LINK | Source fetial (L. pl. fetiales) - type of priest of Ancient Rome collegium (equally empowered members) devoted to Jupiter advised senate on foreign affairs, international treaties made formal proclamations of war & peace confirmed treaties https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetial Pater - father  |  patratus - accomplished Pater Patratus - Accomplished Father [ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/patratus ] Injury by State | Diplomacy In event of injury to Rome by another state: four (4) fetials sent to seek redress for injury by anor. state Fetial - any of body of 20 Roman priestly officials concerns: international relations, treaties, declarations of war originally selected from most noble families served for life only submitted advice:  advice not binding on decisions Livny's book 1, history of Rome: when Rome injured by another state, four (4) fetials sent to seek redress - incl: 1. verbenarius - carried herbs gathers from Arx on Capitoline Hill 2. pater patratus - group's representative on reaching offending state prater patratus announced mission & addressed prayer to Jupiter affirmed the justness of his errand Crossing the border, he repeated the same form several times 30 (or 33 days, by some sources), if no remedy given:  pater patratus harshly denounced offending state returned to Rome reported to Senate if war decided prater patratus returned to border pronounced declaration of war & hurled over boundary: 1.  regular spear; or 2.  special stake sharpened & hardened in fire. ritual to keep Rome from waging unjust or aggressive war Where enemy state was distant, spear would be cast upon a piece of land in front of Temple of Bellona in Rome land was treated as belonging to the enemy *ritual limitations overcome by legal fictions & state entered into wars to its advantage Treaties verbenarius & pater patratus sent to other nation treaty read aloud curse pronounced on Rome should the state be first to break treaty ceremony concluded by killing pig with flint tool by late republic this had faded but Emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14AD) revived priestly group & became member also http://www.britannica.com/topic/fetial#ref6591 Change in ritual to ancient Roman declaration of war due to war with Greek Pyrrhus (non-adjoining territory): Pyrrhus of Epirus, Greek tribe Molossians (wins w/ heavy losses:  Pyrrhic victory) Pyrrhic War 280-275) - Greeks, Italians & Carthaginians (ie Phoenicians, North Africa) Pyrrhus considered one of greatest military commanders of time Hannibal ranked him greatest commander world had seen second to Alexander the Great Pyrrhus entered Italy 280BC 3,000 cavalry 2,000 archers 500 slingers 20,000 infantry 20 war elephants (loaned by Ptolemy II) series of wars ending w/ Romans 6,000 dead / Pyrrhus 3,500 dead Rome lost Pyrrhus headed for Sicily lifts Carthaginian siege of Syracuse proclaimed king of Sicily designs on Italy Lilybaeum (Marsala, Western Sicily) military target manpower and money from the Sicilians required Sicilians not happy military dictatorship enforced alienated Sicilian Greeks while engaged with Carthaginians Romans rebuilt army on Pyrrhus return Sicily Pyrrhus vastly outnumbered /withdraws after inconclusive battle of 275 BC Pyrrhus Italian campaign was only chance for Greeks to stop what became advance of Rome towards domination of Mediterranean Punic Wars followed this period: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus Punic Wars (x3) Rome vs Carthage - 264 - 146BC LARGEST wars that had ever taken place 'Punic' fm. L. Punicus (or Poenicus) - ie Carthaginian (Phoenician ancestry) cause:  Rome sought to expand into existing Carthaginian Empire domain Romans wanted Sicily (part of which Carthaginian control) mid-200s BC - Carthage located modern Tunisia powerful, sea-merchant city-state, vast commercial network only Rome rivalled it in power, wealth & population Carthage navy largest in ancient world then but Carthage did not maintain a large, permanent standing army relied mostly on mercenaries (Numidians - ancient Berber, now Algeria) Carthaginian navy provided their lower classes w/ stable income & career Rome, unlike Carthage, had large disciplined armed forces Rome had no navy at start First Punic War Rome constructed own fleet during FPW Rome first defeated due to Carthage advantage at sea but: 1. ROME DRASTICALLY EXPANDED NAVY IN SHORT TIME IN 2 MONTHS ROMAN FLEET HAD OVER 100 WARSHIPS 2.  INNOVATION:  CORVUS (assault bridge) added to Roman ships hinged bridge to swing into enemy vessels with sharp spike & stop vessels Roman legionaries board & capture Carthaginian ships *Corvus = ravens /  crows Tactic reduced Carthaginian advantage re ship-to-ship battles Romans superior infantry prevail in naval conflicts Romans suffer disasterous intial defeat:  Battle of Tuins + x2 naval engagements otherwise:  First Punic War almost unbroken string of Roman victories 241 BC - Carthage signs peace treaty, evacuating Sicily & paying Rome large war indemnity Carthage plunged into Mercenary War (Rome then seized Sardinia & Corsica) Rome then ascends to power in Western Mediterranean more on Punic Wars https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic_Wars Mercenary War (240–238 BC) revolt supported by Libya natives re non-payment of mercenary troops under Carthage re Sicily vs Rome Carthage liquidity problem:  Egypt (mutual Rome & Carthage ally) Egypt no liquidity help Husaby, near Kinnekulle Västergötland, Sweden https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Husaby_kyrka_ext_2005-08-10.jpg Sweden 13th Century King's subjects begin to pay monetary taxes therefore royal estates financing obsolete royal estates then passed to nobility & church Individual royal estates enumerated in: 1.  Law of Hälsingland (older) 2.  Westrogothic law (newer) Uppsala öd =  first foundation of Swedish state property https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_%C3%B6d ---------------------- ꕤ ---------------------- Comment From this historical perspective, the modern-day invasion of Europe feels sacrilegious. ꕤ

Russian Federation: Last Remaining European Pagans - the Mari (aka 'Cheremis' / 'Chimari')

ꕤ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1qdU1JnSpc Last of Europe's Pagans Russia's Mari people aka 'Cheremis'  /  Chimari -- Finno-Ugric ethnic group -- Republic of Mari El -- Volga Finnic ethnic group -- x3 different groups Meadow Mountain Eastern 2002:  604,298 self-identified Mari Rural residing Mari = 60% Own language:  Mari RELIGION Pagan -- individual connected with nature -- nature exerts magical influence over the people -- relate to nature as sacred, powerful & living being -- (man cannot exist outside of nature) -- nature:  source of absolute good -- helper as long as it is not harmed or opposed -- pantheon of gods, reside in heavens -- Great White God (Osh Kugu Yumo), most important -- lesser gods:     -- god of fire (Tul Yumo)     -- god of wind (Mardezh Yumo) Hybrid Gods - Chumbulat -- Mari believe in half-men, half-gods on Earth -- most revered:  Chumbulat (leader & warrior) Ivan IV - Ivan the Terrible -- 1500s - incorporates Mari into Russian Empire -- Adoption of Christianity / but not universal -- paganism practised to this day -- pagan Mari:  25-40% of Mari population (otherwise mostly Orthodox) [wikipedia] ---------------------- ꕤ ---------------------- Spring in the birch grove by Strakhov Keremet god identified with sacred groves birches & oaks grow on site upon which mortal killed by god of earth & water, Keremet Keremet is the punisher god Keremet's home is the sacred groves Sacred groves:  home of dead heroes Mari / Maris (Chimari) Osh Kugu Yumo Osh Poro Kugu Yumo Great White Good God Great White Good God -- masculine form -- master of heavenly laws -- protector etymological (word origin) parallels in related other languages: Finnish (Jumala) Estonian (Jumal) Zyryan (Yen) Udmurt (Inmar) God Keremet -- opponent of Kugu Yumo -- negative aspect -- dangerous, destructive -- contact made through sacrifices & consecrating trees or groves -- Eastern Mari see Keremet as defender of Maris -- but this does not negate dangerous / negative aspects -- 'keremet' - generic term for nasty spirits -- those not properly buried / dead with hostile dispositions -- Keremet evilness not absolute -- Keremet is lord of the earth & esp. the waters -- records misdeeds of humans -- does not punish without reason -- punishment for bad deeds or violation of rituals -- demonisation of Keremet = Christianity influence Ancient myth: -- earth diver water-bird that created world -- by diving down to bring up earth from abysses of water Yumo's Daughter - Yumyn-Iudyr -- regularly descended silky stairs from heaven -- to pasture 'heavenly herd of cattle' -- married a mortal -- marriage ended tragically for mortal (jealousy) -- mauled by Keremet / site of his death grew birches & oaks -- some Mari consider husband of Yumyn-Iudyr -- their totemic ancestor Kugo Yumo -- distant from humanity (in the heavens / sky) Shaman = kart belief in initial unity of gods and humans -- humans & gods lived on star (planet) -- tended to animals -- natural cataclysm:  grass stopped growing -- gods sent people to Earth -- to feed the herd & herds lifted back to heaven (for food) -- but planetary catastrophe:  ppl & animals could not return to star -- remained on earth Sacrifices -- sacrificed animal flesh burned on fire -- to feed gods in heavens -- as souls of animal (burnt offerings) rise to the star to the gods -- gods consume the spirit (and are fed) Individual Angel-Servants -- Susko, defender of faith -- protects from forces of nature & poverty -- Vitn'yze, spirit helper who helps gods -- Piyambar, goddess linked with destiny & divination Vechory (or vesiory) - male or female -- female is positive -- male brings destruction -- are local family spirits -- upon whom material success of humans depends Demonic Spirit:  Obada -- social defects blamed on an 'obada' -- eg drunkenness Cult of Saintly Heroes -- national leaders & defenders of Mari tribes -- special reverence:     -- Chumbylat - saint of all Mari, prince-warrior     -- end 11th Century gathered all Mari     -- told them to build cities     -- 1830s Chumbylat's grave, cliff at:     -- rocky mountain by river Nemda     -- cliff destroyed     -- Mari revived the cult:  honour hero - 26 June Mari often mix up figure of Chumbylat with figure of tribal god:  Kuryk Kugyza (k.a.  'Kuryk Kugu' -  the great mountain person') Akpatyr -- considered by Mari as one of ancient tribal princes -- 1500s service to Russian Tsar -- diplomatic skills -- peaceful existence for his ppl, amid Russian & Tatar expansion -- cult of Akpatyr revived in present day Mari acknowledge x9 honoured, powerful ancient hero-ancestors -- to address ancestor, one needs special spiritual power -- morally purity requisite Kugeche - connected with Easter (celebrated same day) -- Eastern Mari seek to distance themselves from Christian traditions -- celebrate a week earlier Above is not a complete overview.  It is  just a small portion of what's covered in the following academic text: SOURCE Modern Pagan & Native Faith Movements in Central & Eastern Europe by Kaarina Aitamurto (University of Helsinki) & Scott Simpson (University in Krakow) http://www.amazon.com/Movements-Central-Contemporary-Historical-Paganism/dp/1844656624 cataclysm violent upheaval causes great destruction or brings about a fundamental change or  devastating flood fm. Latin 'cataclysmos' (deluge) fm. Greek kataklusmos fm. katakluzein (to inundate) 'kluzein' (to wash away) ---------------------- ꕤ ----------------------  COMMENT I could get into reverence for enormous 1,000 year old oak trees (and warrior ancestors).  Sounds sensible.  I'm also drawn to the European tribal thing.  But I'd never fit into tribal society. Mari El Republic must be a wonderful place to live -- as in the ancient history that's borne by the people and the land.  Favourite parts (aside from warrior ancestors & the space myth):  birches and oaks growing from place mortal was killed. Chimari is the term I prefer. ꕤ