Bohemia to Sumer via Iran & Back

[NOTE:  ALL INFO FROM WIKIPEDIA SITE, UNLESS OTHERWISE MARKED /  *SOME WIKIPEDIA URL ENTRIES MAY NOT BE LISTED] BOHEMIA Bohemia (+ Bavaria) -- named after Boii -- Boii large Celtic tribe -- known to Romans (migrations & settlement in northern Italy & other) -- another part of Boii Celtic tribe moves west -- west moving Boii with Helvetti (Gallic, Swiss region) move into southern France -- this led to Julius Caesar Gaulish campaign of 58 BC -- mass movement of Helvetii & Boii left southern Germany & Bohemia -- SEVERELY DEPOPULATED - lightly inhabited 'desert' -- Suebic tribes arrive, speaking Germanic languages -- become dominant over remaining Celtic groups -- name referred to by Roman Tacitus & Strabo: Boiohaemum -- 'Boii' after Celtic tribe -- 'Heim' Germanic for 'home' -- thus: Boii-home -- south east in Hungary were: Sarmatians tribes SARMATIANS -- large confederation of proto-Iranians / Central Asia 2000 BC -- peak expansion 1000 BC, from: -- Iranian Plateau -- entire Eurasian Steppe -- Great Hungarian Plain (west) -- Ordos Plateau (east) WESTERN IRANIAN PERSIAN EMPIRES -- dominated much of ancient world at this period -- left important cultural legacy -- Eastern Iranian nomads of steppe, role in development Euraisan nomadism & Silk Route ANCIENT IRANIAN PEOPLES -- Alans -- Batricians -- Dahae -- Massagetae -- Medes -- Khwarezmians -- Parthians -- Saka -- Sarmatians -- Scythians -- Sogdians -- other: Central Asia, Caucasus, Eastern Europe & Iranian Plat. -- 1000 AD, Western Iranian tribes area of settlement -- reduced by Slavic, Germanic, Turkic & Mongol expansions -- + subject of Slavicisations -- Iranian tribes: -- balochs, Kurds, Gilaks, Lurs, Mazanderanis, Ossetians, Pashtuns, -- Pamiris, Persians, Tajiks, Talysh, Wakhis & Yaghnobis -- Iranian - 'Aryana' (Old Iranian ethnicity) -- from Sanskrit - 'Arya' -- 'Iran' is from: 'Aryanam (lit. '(Land) of the Aryans' -- proto-Indo-Rianian: 'Arya' - 'hospitable' (self referential) -- anor meaning: 'noble' (see Avesta) -- homeland estimated: -- Herat (Pliny view) - Pliny the Elder, Roman empire philosopher & friend of e. Vespasian - army entry / son of equestrian - took part in the Roman conquest of the Chauci (ancient Germanic tribe) - plus other entries -- entire expanse of Iranian Plateau (Strabo) - Greek geographer, philosopher, historian -- b. Pontus (in what is now Turkey) -- extensive travels / moved Rome age 21 -- 'Iranian' is distinct from 'Iran' state in academic usage -- citizens of Iran are not necessarily of the Iranian peoples -- 'Aryan' - Old Iranian term - solely re ethnicity -- name 'Arya' lives in ethnic names: eg Alan, Ossetian (Ir + Iron) -- name 'Iran' in usage since Sasanid times http://sasanika.org/ SASSANID Empire - 224–651 -- succeeded Parthian Empire -- known to these peoples as 'Ērānshahr' in Middle Persian lang. -- peak of ancient Iranian civilization -- considerable influence on Roman culture in Sasanian period -- influence reached: Western Europe, Africa, China, India Knowledge | Culture -- what later was referred to as 'Islamic culture' in art, architecture, music & other -- was transferred from Sasanids to Muslim-conquered regions -- so it is in fact Iranian culture, art etc. -- & the Saudis Arab conquering rulers    (or their later pan-ethnic Arab-speaking Arab empire subjects) -- credited instead of the Iranians (Persians) more info https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire Iranian | Persian Sassanid Empire Give back Yemen!! [maps] PERSIA / IRAN Arab Conquest --  632-634:  Arabia Peninsula conquered & converted by Arab armies -- 635 AD:  Christian province Syria falls to Arab armies -- 636 AD:  Antioch falls to Arab armies -- 638 AD:  Jerusalem falls to Arab armies, after 1 year siege   -- 637 AD:  Persia falls Arab armies -- Battle of Kadisiya, close to Euphrates -- 637 AD:  Arabs sack Ctesiphon (Persian) -- 641 AD:  Arab armies defeat Persians at Nahavand -- 642 AD:  Arab armies capture Isfahan -- 643 AD:  Arab armies capture Herat   -- Persia now under Umayyad Caliphate (for next century) Zoroastrian Parsees  -- Last Sassanian emperor 5 years old -- Assassinated at 651 AD (at Merv)  -- Parsees number years from start of his reign (632 AD) Conversion majority  Iran / Persia / by, say, 937 AD -- x3 centuries after Arab invasion & conquest of Persia -- majority convert to religion of new ruling caste (the Arabs)  Zoroastrian Parsees -- Zoroastrians seek liberty:  move to India, Gujarat -- Zoroastrians established in India as ‘Parsees’ (Persian for ‘Persians’) -- remaining few Zoroastrians in Iran in remote cities (Yazd, Kerman) -- known to Arabs as ‘gabar’ ( infidel? ) http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ebw   -- Sassanids:  last great Iranian empire before the Muslim conquest & conversion to Islam -- for almost 400 years, leading world power, along with -- arch rival: Roman-Byzantine Empire more info https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire ARIYA -- 'Ariya' in royal Old Persian inscriptions 1. name of language (Old Persian inscription Darius the Great, in Behistun) 2. ethnic background of Darius (inscriptions: (1) Naqsh-e-Rostam & Susa) 3. definition of God of Iranian peoples: Ahuramazda (1. Persepolis, Xerxes inscription) (2. Behistun inscription, Elamite version) INSCRIPTIONS -- Dna, Dse Dariius & Xerxes self description: -- an Achaemenian -- a Persian son -- of a Persian -- an Aryan -- of Aryan stock -- however, Darius the Great, called his language 'Iranian' language -- modern scholars refer to it as: 'Old Persian' -- because the language is ancestor of modern Persian language Old Iranian Language -- comprised of: 1. Iran, north-east Avestan (associated with sacred Zoroastrian language) 2. Iran, south-west Old Persian -- a branch of Indo-Iranain language -- Iranian languages classified either 'eastern' or 'western' -- in this classification, Avestan is eastern * 1 + 2:  together, comprising:  'Old Iranian' lang. *Old Avestan = closely related to Old Persian *Old Avestan = close to Vedic Sanskrit (some extent) *Old Avestan = believed ancestor of Pashto dialect AVESTAN 1. Old Avestan (Gathic Avestan) 2. Younger Avestan (not evolved from Old Avestan, diff. dialect) - Younger Avestan = several transformations 3rd or 4th century AD - Script Developed - Din dabrieh ('religion writing') -- re writing Avestan -- but Avestan by then EXTINCT LANGUAGE FOR MANY CENTURIES -- remaining only liturgical language of Avesta -- memorised by priesthood & recited by rote -- script defised = Din dabrieh ('religion writing') -- 53 distinct characters -- written right-to-left -- x13 "Book" Pahlavi / Pahlavi script -- in turn, based on Aramaic script symbols -- incorporates other: eg. derived from Greek / + punctuation symbols -- Avestan alphabet has one letter that has NO CORRESPONDING SOUND in Avestan lang. -- /I/ character added to write Pazend texts -- Avestan script is alphabetic (single letter = sound (not idea, word etc) -- reason being: need for phonetic precision -- Pazend = one of writing systems used for Middle Persian lang. PAZEND -- one of writing systems used for Middle Persian lang. -- used mainly for writing: commentaries (Zend) -- re Avesta (Zoroastrian sacred texts) -- derives from 'paiti zainti' ('for commentary') or similar -- Pazend = variation of Avestan alphabet (Din Dabrieh) -- unlike Pahlavi, no 'ideograms' (graphic symbols) - carrying idea, concept etc -- Pahlavi ieogams borrowed from Semitic lang, eg. Aramaic ZOROASTRIANISM -- Sassanid defeat by Muslims -- Zoroastrianism gradually supplanted by foreign Arabic religion -- Parzend lost purpose (ie Middle Persian sanctified writing) -- Parzend soon ceased to be used for composition -- late 1000 AD or 1100 AD, Indian Zoroastrians (Parsis) -- begin translating Avestan (or Middle Persian) alphabet -- interpretation = 'pa-zand' (Parzand texts) -- Pazand texts = late & often corrupt Middle Persian pronunciation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazend -- Avestan (sacred language, Zoroastrian) associated with -- north-eastern Iran (Old Persian) PROTO-INDIAN-EUROPEAN (PIE) -- is ancestral to following languages: -- Celtic -- Italic (incl. Romance) -- Germanic -- Baltic -- Slavic -- Indo-Iranian -- Albanian -- Armenian -- Greek -- Tocharian not included: Basque Hungarian Estonian Finnish IRANIAN derived language regions: Iran (Iranian) parts of Pakistan (Balochi and Pashto) Afghanistan (Pashto and Dari) Tadjikistan (Tajiki) INDO-IRANIAN language spread: Indo-Aryan Sanskrit Urdu + many related languages AVESTA -- sacred language -- closely related to Vedic Sanskrit -- Vedic Sanskrit, oldest preserved Indo-Aryan language 1000 BC - Division into EASTERN + WESTERN -- indicated by: Avestan vs. Old Persian (south-west Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian) -- Avestan - aka 'Zend' = Iranian language of Eastern Iranian division -- used in Zoroastrian scripture -- related region: Arachosia Aria Bactria Margiana -- region area, comprising almost entirely: - AFGHANISTAN - PAKISTAN (parts) - TAJIKISAN - TURKMENISTAN - UZBEKISTAN  Distinctive art: -- 'Yaz culture' of Bactria-Margiana (parts of Afghanistan) -- Yaz culture = early Iron Age culture c. 1500 to 1100 BC -- likely indicative of early East Iranian culture, as described in Avesta -- no burials related to culture found -- taken as evidence of: Zoroastrian practice (sky burial) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz_culture Western Iranian peoples in the Near East -- dominated by the various Assyrian empires -- subsequent alliance with: -- Medes -- Persians  + rebelling: -- Babylonians - fm. Akkad city, capital Akkadian empire -- location of Akkad is unknown -- indigenous Semitic + Sumerian united under one rule -- controlled Mesopotamia, Levant, parts Iran -- initially bilingual: Akkadian replaced Sumerian -- Sumerian 'native tongue' - lang. of Sumer (southern Mesopotamia, mod. Iraq - 3000 BC) Sumer -- first ancient URBAN civilisation southern Mesopotamia (now southern Iraq) -- poss. first settled: c. 5500 and 4000 BC -- by pre-Semitic Caucasoid / linguistically isolated Sumerian -- Sumerian: names of cities, rivers, occupations etc - show this -- language isolate = natural language / no relationship to other branches Eridu -- site of earliest city in southern Mesopotamia -- poss. oldest city in the world -- 12km southwest of Ur -- one of numerous Sumerian cities that arose around temples -- temples mud brick & built on top of one another, growing upward -- villages growing outward: larger city built -- site is near: Basra -- city associated w. temple of Enki (Sumerian water god) -- counterpart to Ea (Akkadian water god) -- potentially original Babel & site of Tower of Babel, rather than Babylon -- per Egyptologist David Rohl -- urban nucleus of Eridu: Enki temple (house of the aquifer) -- later 'house of the waters' -- period of Ur III ziggurat built over remains of previous temples https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridu -- Scythians - large group Iranian, Eurasian nomads -- Chaldeans - small Semitic nation, absorbed into Babylonia native population -- Cimmerians - poss. Thracian w. Iranian ruling class - neighbours of ancient Macedonia ALLIANCE vs. ASSYRIANS: -- helped the Medes to claim Nineveh 612 BC -- result: collapse neo-Assyrian Empire by 605 BC -- Medes establish Median kingdom -- Ecbatana - royal centre (old Persian 'place of gathering') -- city of Media, western Iran Back to Bohemia ... Bohemia -- part of early Slavic state of Great Moravia -- r. 870–894, Svatopluk I -- collapse from internal conflict -- plus nomadic Magyar invader attack -- following Svatopluk I death -- however, due to incorporation into Moravian Empire -- extensive Christianisation of population -- native monarchy rose to throne: Czech lands to be ruled -- for next several 100 years by Premyslid dynasty -- who entered into semi-vassalage to the Frankish rulers -- via 'alliance' / facilitated by Bohemia conversion to Christianity 9th C. -- close relations developed & continued with: East Frankish kingdom -- which devolved from Carolingian Empire into East Francia -- which eventually became: HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE -- 955 Battle of Lechfeld, Boleslaus I -- decisive victory Holy Roman Empire & Bohemia vs. invading Magyars -- Bohemia granted March of Moravia by German emperor Otto the Great -- under HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, Bohemia largely autonomous state -- control of Holy Roman Empire reasserted -- when Jaromir of Bohemia granted fief of Kingdom of Bohemia -- by King Henry II, Holy Roman Empire -- with promise to hold as vassal once Prague reoccupied with German army 1004 -- ending the rule of Boleslaw I of Poland Other rule: -- Luxembourg dynasty, (via marriage) circa. 1310 -- John I of Bohemia crowned -- son: Charles IV -- Charles King of Bohemia 1346 --- f. Charles University in Prague, Europe's first university -- reign of Charles IV - political & territorial peak -- Charles IV first king of Bohemia to be elected HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR - controlled: -- Moravia -- Siesia -- Upper Lusatia -- Lower Lusatia -- Brandenburg -- region near Nuremberg ('new Bohemia') -- Luxembourg -- small towns in Germany HUSSITE BOHEMIA -- 1415 Jan Hus, rector of Charles University -- religious reformer & thinker -- sentenced to be burnt at stake: heretic -- despite formal protection of Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg -- given opportunity to defend himself re Czech positions in religious court -- executed Jul. 1415 -- w/ emperor approval -- x5 consecutive papal crusades against Hus followers -- Bohemians forced to defend themselves -- rebellion & defence vs. Roman Catholics = Hussite Wars -- uprising against imperial forces led Jan Žižka (former mercenary) leader of Hussite armies -- howitzers, pistols, fortified wagons -- Žižka - great general who never lost a battle -- on death: Propkop the Great takes over as commander -- Hussites victorious another 10 years -- Europe 'terrified' -- Hussites eventually splintered into two factions - Ultraquists (compromise w. Catholic church) - Taborites (radical views) -- Taborites defeated by Ultraquists Battle of Lipany 1434 -- 1458: George of Podebrady - elected to Bohemian throne -- PROTO EUROPEAN UNION: -- attempts to set up a pan-European "Christian League" -- all states of Europe to be formed into 'community based on religion' -- due to deteriorating relationship of Podebrady with Pope -- Podebrady position 'substantially damaged' & negotiations not completed HABSBURG MONARCHY -- 1526: Archduke Ferdinand of Austria new King of Bohemia -- Bohemia constituent state of Habsburg Monarchy -- religious freedom 1453-1620 -- one of most liberal Christian countries that time -- 1609: Prague made capital of Holy Roman Empire -- oppression by Bohemian rulers (Holy Roman Emperor) re Protestant rights -- results in Bohemian Revolt -- which results in outbreak of Thirty Years' War (1618) -- Protestant eventually elected by Bohemian nobility -- ie. Frederick V -- 1620: Frederick V - killed in Battle of White Mountain -- subsequently: -- 27 Bohemian estates leaders -- Jan Jesenius, rector of the Charles University of Prague *executed on the Prague's Old Town Square *1621 and the rest were exiled *their lands were then given to Catholic loyalists (mostly Bavarian & Saxon origins) -- ended pre-reformation movement in Bohemia -- ended Prague as ruling city of Holy Roman Empire -- 1627 - 'new Constitution' - establishes German language as second official lang. of Czech lands -- Czech language spoken as first language -- both German & Latin widely spoken by ruling classes -- German becomes more dominant -- Czech spoken in rural areas CZECH LANGUAGE -- formerly known as Bohemian -- is a West Slavic language -- influenced by Latin -- 1749: official independence blocked by Bohemian Diet -- Diet approved administrative reform & affirmed: ** indivisibility of the Habsburg Empire and the centralization of rule ** meant: merging Bohemian Chancellery w. Austrian Chancellery -- end 1700s: Czech National Revival Movement -- supported by part of Bohemian aristocracy -- campaign for restoration of kingdom historic rights -- ie Czech to replace German as admin lang. -- minor concessions later restricted -- Revolution 1848: Czech nationalists call for autonomy from Habsburg Austria -- revolutionaries defeated -- last vestiges of independence dissolved -- but Czech language rebirth: 'romantic nationalism' among Czechs -- 1861 - new elected Bohemian Diet est. -- renewal of old Bohemian Crown (Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia) official political agenda -- of both Czech liberal politicians + Bohemian aristocracy -- 'state rights program' -- parties representing German minority + -- small part of aristocracy -- loyalty to the centralistic Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue") -- 1866: Austro-Prussian War defeat of Austria -- 1867: Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 --- achieved by Hungarian politicians: creating 'equality' b/w Austria & Hungary portions of empire -- tripartate monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) attempted by Czechs, failed 1871 -- 'state rights program' remained official platform of all Czech political parties to 1918 -- *exception was the social democrats POST WWI -- Bohemia was core of newly formed: CZECHOSLOVAKIA -- combining Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, upper Hungary (now Slovakia) -- + Carpathian Ruthenia, into one state -- Tomáš Masaryk, becomes first president of Czechoslovakia -- Czechoslovakia - liberal democratic republic -- issues arise Czech majority relationship with native German & Hungarian minorities 1938 - Munich Agreement -- Sudetenland (border regions of Bohemia, historically inhabited by ethnic Germans) -- annexed to Third Reich Germany 1939 - Remnants -- remnants of Bohemia & Moravia annexed by Germany 1939 --- Slovak lands became separate Slovak republic -- described as 'puppet state' of Third Reich Germany -- 1939 to 1945 Bohemia -- *formed 'German Protectorate of Bohemia & Moravia): -- minus Sudetenland -- with Moravia -- *opposition to German occupation brutally suppressed by authorities -- *Czech dissenters executed as result -- end WWII 1945 -- vast majority of Germans -- presumably ethnic Germans? -- were expelled by order of Czech central govt -- on basis of Potsdam Agreement -- property of these Germans was confiscated by Czech govt -- result: severe depopulation of area CZECHOSLOVAKIA 1946 - Czechoslovakia Re-Established -- on basis of Potsdam Agreement -- pursuant to stipulation that region (?) be placed under 'Polish administration' -- post WWII, elected Communist party, reportedly backed by Soviet Union -- Re-established Czechoslovakia -- non-communists of govt resign in protest against 'arbitrary measures' re state institutions -- PM of coalition govt Klement Gottwald (communist) -- response = coup d'état -- pro-Soviet authoritarian state installed -- 1949: Bohemia no longer administrative top dog -- Czechoslovakia divided into admin regions -- 1949 to 1989, Czechoslovakia a 'Soviet satellite' -- note: no Soviet army present to 1968 -- 1968, the Communist Party began reforms & 'democratisation' -- "Prague Spring" reforms stopped by Warsaw Pact armies (in Aug 1968) Pope John Paul II - 1989 -- appoints 'Agnes of Bohemia' first saint from Central European country -- 'Velvet Revolution' - later that year -- dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993 -- Bohemia becomes: new Czech Republic -- 1992 Constitution refers to Bohemia, Moravia & Silesia -- & proclaims continued statehood of Bohemian Crown -------/\/\/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz_culture https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazend https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridu http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ebw ---------------------- ---------------------- Sarmatians Iranian ppl (classical antiquity) peak:  5th C BC - 4th C AD spoke Scythian - Eastern Iranian branch Indo-European move westward move 6th C. BC closely related to Scythians came to dominate Scythians by 2nd C. BC differed from Scythians:     -- veneration of god of fire     -- woman prominent role in warfare     -- poss. inspiration for Amazons -- rather than Scythian:  god of nature -- territory known as Sarmatia (to Greco-Romans) -- now mostly modern Ukraine & Southern Russia -- part north-east Balkans, around Moldova -- 1st Century AD -- Sarmatians encroach on Roman Empire in ALLIANCE with Germanic tribes -- domiance of Pontic Steppe broken by Germanic Goths, 3rd Century AD -- during Hunnic invasions 4th C. -- many Sarmatians join Goths & other Germanic tribes (Vandals) -- moving to settle Western Roman Empire -- related peoples:  Alans, survived in North Caucasus to early Middle Ages -- gave rise to Ossetic ethnic group -- indigenous to Ossetia, speak Iranic lang. (+ Russian) -- mostly Eastern Orthodox -- politically divided:     -- North Ossettia-Alania (in Russia)     -- South Ossetia (de facto independent fm Georgia, since 2008 South Ossetia war) -- Ossettians receive name from Russian lang., which adopted Georgian designations -- & used since Middle Ages for Iranian speaking tribes -- prob. based old Alan self-designation 'As' -- terms accepted / lack of single inclusive name for selves & lang. prior to integration into Russian empire -- 1990s Ossetian nationalism dispute b/w subgroups Digoron vs. Iron re dialect of Digoron -- intellectuals then search for new inclusive ethnic name:  'Alania' popularised -- name of medieval Sarmatian confderation that Ossetians descend from Alans -- Sarmatian tribe (Scythian subgroup of Iranian ethno-ling. group) -- 200 AD Alans only branch of Sarmatians to keep culture -- post Gothic (Germanic) invasions -- built kingdom b/w Don & Volga -- 350 and 374 AD Huns destroy Alan kingdom -- but Alans survive in Caucasus  (as Ossetians) Alans Conflicts --  Ossetian-Ingush conflict - 1991–1992 --  Georgian–Ossetian conflicts - 1918, 1920, 1990s --  South Ossetia War 2008 (George / Russia) Key events described as: -- 1774:  Iran Afsharid Dynasty falls apart -- some degre integration of descendants into modern Islamic minorities -- north Ossetia = Russian empire -- 1801:  Treaty of Georgievsk -- ie.  Persia relinquishes control of South Ossetia     *South Ossetia becomes Russian Empire territory     *along with Georgia -- 1922:  Ossetia divided:         1.  North Ossetia (Russian, Soviet Rep.)         2.  South Ossetia (Georgian, Soviet Rep.) -- 1990:  South Ossetia declares independence from Georgia -- Georgia does not recognise -- ethnic tensions:     -- Ossetians vs. Georgians (South Ossetia, in abolished former auto.Oblast)     -- Ossetians vs. Ingush (in North Ossetia, violent clashes)     -- Ingush are Caucasian native ethnic group, however they have adopted Sunni religion     -- Ingush language closely related to Chechen, but *not mutually intelligible*     -- Ingush & Chechen collectively known as:  Vainakh     -- Ingush under Russian rule in 1810     -- accused of collaborating w. Third Reich Germans WWII     -- entire population DEPORTED to Kazakhstan & Kyrgyzstan     -- post Stalin death 1950s, returned home 1957     -- but by that time western Ingush lands ceded to North Ossetia     -- predominantly Sunni muslim       (not sure if from mixing in Kaz. & Kyrg. or Muslim conquest Iran) -- Ossetian divided into:      -- Ironian         - north Ossetia         - south Ossetia     -- Digorian         - western North Ossetia -- also subdialetcts exist -- Ossetian  =  Scytho-Sarmatian diaglect group -- closely related surviving langs:     -- Yaghnobi     -- Pashto     -- Pamiri     *all spoken over 2,000 km away in:         -- east Afghanistan         -- north-western Pakistan         -- some parts of Tajikistan -- Alans christianised by Bizantine missionaries 10th C. Ad -- Ossetians mainly under Eastern Orthodox, 12th-13thC. under infl. Georgia -- Digor in west, eventually came under Kabardian & Islamic influence -- Kabarday = east Circassian tribe -- through Kabarday Muslim religion introduced (17th C.) -- Ossetia under Russian emp. 1774, strengthening Orth. christ. -- Ossetian ethnic religion (ie the Alans / the Samatrian-Scythian, Iranian) -- many ritual traditions -- sacrificing animals -- holy shrines -- non Christian saints -- temples kown as:  kuvadon -- since 1980s, reportedly 'Ætsæg Din' ethnic religion emerging -- 'din' must mean 'religion' (per old Iranian lang. & Avesta reference to script) *** note:  as with other ethnic groups Caucasus      despite Indo-European & Iranic roots      *Ossetians = extensive intermarriage with other ethnic  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetians https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatians [NOTE:  ALL INFO FROM WIKIPEDIA SITE, UNLESS OTHERWISE MARKED /  *SOME WIKIPEDIA URL ENTRIES MAY NOT BE LISTED] COMMENT This was good to check out, but the editing has me really annoyed. Took me forever to do something simple ... grrr. I've edited the same thing about three times so far (something went haywire) and I'm sick of looking at it and tired of checking for typos. Sumerians (above) became dominated by another people that they formed an alliance with, and they got absorbed.   They no longer exist and their unique language, in a branch of its own, is dead. As for Iran, I think it's a shame that the ancient Iranian culture & religion was largely wiped out by what amounts to Saudi Arabian conquest. The ancient Iranian religion and culture seems far more interesting to me. I don't understand why peoples that are conquered and converted by those that conquered them stay converted when they finally achieve independence. I'd be throwing off what is foreign and returning to historic culture.  On the other hand, seeking independence has its draw-backs:  it is cause for ongoing conflicts and splintering of regions. It looks like what became known as the Muslim contribution to art, architecture etc, was actually appropriated and spread from Iran (Persia) by what must be the conquering Saudis (or their slave armies)?